[Pg ii]

[Pg iii]

[Pg iv]

[Pg v]

In this little book an attempt has been made to discuss
the more abundant and widely distributed butterflies of
eastern North America from the point of view of their
life histories and their relations to their surroundings. In
so doing I have of course availed myself of the written
records of a host of students of butterflies, without whose
labors no such volume would be possible. Among these
two names stand out preëminent—William H. Edwards
and Samuel H. Scudder. Each was the author of a
sumptuous work on American butterflies to which all later
students must refer, both for information and for inspiration.
Many others, however, have made notable contributions
to our literature of these ethereal creatures. Every
seeker after a knowledge of butterflies will soon find
himself indebted to the writings of such investigators
as the Comstocks, Denton, Dickerson, Dyar, Fernald,
Fiske, Fletcher, French, Hancock, Holland, Howard,
Longstaff, Newcomb, Riley, Skinner, Wright, and many
others. I am glad to express my obligations to all of these
for the assistance their records have given in the preparation
of this book.

While a vast amount of knowledge of butterflies has
already been discovered there is still more to be learned
concerning them, and throughout these pages I have
attempted to indicate the more important opportunities
[Pg vi]
awaiting investigation. The day of the field naturalist has
come again and the butterflies are well worthy of careful
observations by many interested students.

The illustrations in the book require a word of credit.
The eleven color plates of adult butterflies with wings
spread have been made direct from a set of the remarkable
transfers which Mr. Sherman F. Denton has been preparing
for the last quarter-century, this particular set
having been prepared especially for this book. Transfers
of this sort were used as insets in Mr. Denton's work on
the "Moths and Butterflies of the United States," published
in a limited edition by J. B. Millet Company,
Boston. The other plates not reproduced from photographs
are from drawings by Miss Mary E. Walker or
Mr. W. I. Beecroft. In case the photographs are not of
my own taking, credit is given beneath each. Two of my
photographs have already appeared in "Seeing Nature
First" and are here used by permission of its publishers,
J. B. Lippincott Company.

State Normal School

    Lowell, Mass.

[Pg vii]

	PAGE
Preface	v
List of Colored Illustrations	xi
List of Other Illustrations	xiii
PART I
INTRODUCTION
Butterfly Transformations	5
Butterflies and Moths	13
The Scents of Butterflies	15
Butterfly Migrations	16
Hibernation or Winter Lethargy	17
Aestivation or Summer Lethargy	21
Feigning Death in Butterflies	22
Coloration of Butterflies	24
Selective Color Sense in Butterflies	32
Warning Coloration and Mimicry	33
Heliotropism	35
List and Shadow Observations	37
Parasitic Enemies	40
Rearing Butterflies from Caterpillars	43
Photographing Butterflies	47
Butterfly Collections	49
PART II [Pg viii]
	PAGE
True Butterflies—Superfamily Papilionoidea	55
Parnassians (Parnassiinae)	56
The Swallowtails (Papilionidae) Black Swallowtail; Giant Swallowtail; Blue Swallowtail; Green-clouded Swallowtail; Tiger Swallowtail; Palamedes Swallowtail; Short-tailed Papilio; Zebra Swallowtail; Synopsis of the Swallowtails	57
Whites, Orange-tips, and Yellows (Pieridae)	82
The Tribe of the Whites: White or Imported Cabbage Butterfly; Gray-veined White; Checkered White; Great Southern White; Synopsis of the Whites	83
The Tribe of the Orange-tips: Falcate Orange-tip; Olympian Orange-tip; Synopsis of the Orange-tips	92
The Tribe of the Yellows: Brimstone or Cloudless Sulphur; Dog's-head; Clouded Sulphur; Orange Sulphur; Pink-edged Sulphur; Black-bordered Yellow; Little Sulphur; Dainty Sulphur; Synopsis of the Yellows	97
Nymphs (Nymphalidae)	111
The Tribe of the Fritillaries: Gulf Fritillary; Variegated Fritillary; Diana Fritillary; Regal Fritillary; Great Spangled Fritillary; Silver-spot Fritillary; Mountain Silver-spot; White Mountain Fritillary; Meadow Fritillary; Silver-bordered Fritillary; Synopsis of the Fritillaries [Pg ix]	115
The Tribe of the Crescent-spots: Baltimore Checker-spot; Harris's Checker-spot; Silver Crescent; Pearl Crescent; Synopsis of the Crescent-spots	135
The Tribe of the Angle-wings: Violet-tip; Hop-merchant or Comma; Gray Comma; Green Comma; Red Admiral or Nettle Butterfly; Painted Beauty; Painted Lady or Cosmopolite; Mourning-cloak; American tortoise-shell; White J Butterfly or Compton Tortoise; Buckeye; Synopsis of the Angle-wings (I. Polygonias—II. Vanessids)	150
The Tribe of the Sovereigns: Viceroy; Banded Purple; Red-spotted Purple; Vicereine; Synopsis of the Sovereigns	192
The Tribe of the Emperors: Goatweed Emperor; Gray Emperor; Tawny Emperor; Synopsis of the Emperors	207
Meadows-browns or Satyrs (Agapetidae) Common Wood Nymph or Grayling; Southern Wood Nymph; Pearly Eye; Eyed Brown; White Mountain Butterfly; Arctic Satyr; Little Wood Satyr; Other Meadow-browns; Synopsis of Meadow-browns	214
Heliconians (Heliconidae) Zebra Butterfly	229
Milkweed Butterflies (Lymnadidae) Monarch; Queen	232
Snout Butterflies or Long-beaks (Libytheidae) Snout Butterfly	236
Metal-marks (Riodinidae) Small Metal-mark; Large Metal-mark	239
[Pg x] Gossamer-wings (Lycaenidae)	240
The Tribe of the Hair-streaks: Great Purple Hair-streak; Gray Hair-streak; Banded Hair-streak; Striped Hair-streak; Acadian Hair-streak; Olive Hair-streak; Synopsis of the Hair-streaks	242
The Tribe of the Coppers: Wanderer; American Copper; Synopsis of the Coppers	252
The Tribe of the Blues: Spring Azure; Scudder's Blue; Tailed Blue; Silvery Blue: Synopsis of the Blues	258
PART III
	PAGE
The Skipper Butterflies—Superfamily Hesperioidea	266
Giant Skippers (Megathymidae) Yucca-borer Skipper	267
Common Skippers (Hesperiidae)	268
The Tribe of the Larger Skippers: Silver-spotted Skipper; Long-tailed Skipper; Juvenal's Dusky-wing; Sleepy Dusky-wing; Persius's Dusky-wing; Sooty Wing	269
The Tribe of the Smaller Skippers: Tawny-edged Skipper; Roadside Skipper; Least Skipper	278

[Pg xi]

	PAGE
Viceroy Butterflies Visiting Strawberries	(On Cover)
The Regal Fritillary	Frontispiece
The Carolina Locust	33
The Black Swallowtail	48
The Cynthia Moth	49
Giant Swallowtails	64
The Blue Swallowtail	65
Two of the Swallowtails: Palamedes and Giant	66
The Green-clouded Swallowtail	67
Caterpillars of the Green-clouded Swallowtail	80
The Tiger Swallowtail	96
Imported Cabbage Butterfly	97
Clouded Sulphur Butterfly	112
The Zebra Swallowtail: Summer Form	112-113
The Zebra Swallowtail Visiting Papaw Blossoms	112-113
Some of the Tribe of Yellows	113
Silver-spot Fritillary and Gulf Fritillary	128
Gulf Fritillary, Silver-bordered Fritillary, and Baltimore Checker-spot	129
The Hop Merchant	144
Three Angle-wings (American Tortoise-shell, Red Admiral, Violet-tip): Upper Surface [Pg xii]	160-161
Three Angle-wings (American Tortoise-shell, Red Admiral, Violet-tip): Lower Surface	160-161
The Painted Beauty	161
Three More Angle-wings, Buckeye, Painted Beauty, Cosmopolite	176
The Mourning-cloak	177
Some Common Skippers	192
The Stages of the Viceroy	193
Banded Purple, Red-spotted Purple, and Blue-eyed Grayling	208
Three Emperor Butterflies	209
The Zebra Butterfly	224
Monarch Butterfly, Crysalis and Caterpillar	241
Spring Azure, Falcate Orange-tip, Bronze Copper, and Great Purple Hair-streak	256
Silver-spotted Skipper	273

[Pg xiii]

	PAGE
Swallowtail Butterfly Just Out of Chrysalis	16
Tiger Swallowtail; Hammock Caterpillar	17
Butterfly Feigning Death; Butterfly in Hibernating Position	32
Monarch Butterfly: Change from Caterpillar to Chrysalis	32-33
Monarch Butterfly: Change from Chrysalis to Adult	32-33
Migration of Monarch Butterflies	48-49
The Improved Open Vivarium	48-49
Black Swallowtail Visiting Thistle	64-65
Imported Cabbage Butterfly, Magnified	64-65
Imported Cabbage Butterfly; Blue-eyed Grayling	81
Four-footed Butterflies: Viceroy and Mourning-cloak	145
Monarch Butterfly Resting; Flashlight Photograph of Monarchs in Migration	160
Photographs of a Pet Monarch Butterfly	225
The Snout Butterfly; the Giant Swallowtail	240
Stages of the Gray Hair-streak	257
The Silver-spotted Skipper	272

[Pg xiv]

[Pg 1]

[Pg 2]

[Pg 3]

[↑ TOC]

In popular esteem the butterflies among the insects are
what the birds are among the higher animals—the most
attractive and beautiful members of the great group to
which they belong. They are primarily day fliers and are
remarkable for the delicacy and beauty of their membranous
wings, covered with myriads of tiny scales that overlap
one another like the shingles on a house and show an infinite
variety of hue through the coloring of the scales and
their arrangement upon the translucent membrane running
between the wing veins. It is this characteristic
structure of the wings that gives to the great order of
butterflies and moths its name Lepidoptera, meaning scale-winged.

In the general structure of the body, the butterflies resemble
other insects. There are three chief divisions:
head, thorax, and abdomen. The head bears the principal
sense organs; the thorax, the organs of locomotion; and the
abdomen, the organs of reproduction.

By examining a butterfly's head through a lens it is easy
to see the principal appendages which it bears. Projecting
forward from the middle of the top is a pair of long feelers
or antennae. Each of these consists of short joints which
[Pg 4]
in general may be divided into three groups: first, a few
large joints at the base connecting the feeler with the head;
second, many rather small joints which make up the principal
length; third, several larger joints which make up the
outer part or "club" of the antennæ. In the case of the
Skippers, there are in addition a number of small joints
coming to a sharp point at the end of the club. Just below
the insertion of the antennae on each side of the head
are the large compound
eyes, which are
almost hemispherical.
With a powerful glass,
one can see the honeycomb-like
facets, of
which there are thousands,
making up
each eye. Just below
the eyes there are two hairy projections, called the palpi,
between which is the coiled tongue or sucking tube. (See
plate, page 64-65.)

Anatomically the thorax is divided into three parts—the
prothorax, the mesathorax, and the metathorax; but
the lines of division between these parts are not easily
seen without denuding the skin of its hairy covering. The
prothorax bears the first pair of legs. The mesathorax
bears the front pair of wings and the second pair of legs.
The metathorax bears the hind pair of wings and the
third pair of legs. In many butterflies, the first pair of legs
are so reduced in size that they are not used in walking.

The abdomen is composed of eight or nine distinct rings
or segments, most of which have two spiracles or breathing
pores, one on each side. It also bears upon the end of the
[Pg 5]
body the ovipositor of the female or the clasping organs of
the male.

The butterflies furnish the best known examples of insect
transformations. The change from the egg to the
caterpillar or larva, from the caterpillar to the pupa or
chrysalis, and from the chrysalis to the butterfly or imago
is doubtless the most generally known fact
concerning the life histories of insects. It
is a typical example of what are called complete
transformations as distinguished from
the manner of growth of grasshoppers,
crickets, and many other insects in which
the young that hatches from the egg bears
a general resemblance to the adult and in
which there is no quiet chrysalis stage
when the little creature is unable to eat or to move
about.

Caterpillars are like snakes in at least one respect: in
order to provide for their increase in size they shed their
skins. When a caterpillar hatches from the egg it is a
tiny creature with a soft skin over most of its body but
with rather a firm covering for its head. While we might
fancy that there could be a considerable increase in size
provided for by the stretching of the soft skin it is easy to
see that the hard covering of the head will not admit of
this. So the story of the growth of a caterpillar may be
told in this way:

A butterfly lays an egg upon a leaf. Some days later
[Pg 6]
the egg hatches into a larva, which is the technical
name for the second stage of an insect's life. In the case
of the butterfly we call this larva a caterpillar. The little
caterpillar is likely to take its first meal by eating the
empty egg shell. This is a curious habit, and a really
satisfactory explanation of it seems not to have been made.
Its next meal is likely to be taken from the green tissues of
the leaf, commonly the green outer surface only being
eaten at this time. The future meals are also taken from
the leaf, more and more being eaten as the larva gets
older.

After a few days of this feeding upon the leaf tissues the
little caterpillar becomes so crowded within the skin with
which it was born that it is necessary to have a larger one.
So a new skin begins to form beneath the first one. Consequently
the latter splits open in a straight line part way
down the middle of the back just behind the head. Then
the new head covering is withdrawn from the old one and
the caterpillar wriggles its way out of the split skin and
finds itself clothed in a new one. At first all of the tissues
of the new skin are soft and pliable and they easily take on
a larger size as the body of the caterpillar expands. A
little later these tissues become hardened and no further
expansion is possible.

This process of skin-shedding is called moulting. The
cast skin is often called the exuviae. The period of the
caterpillar's life between the hatching from the egg and
this moult is often called a stage or instar—that is, the
caterpillar up to the time of this moult is living in the first
caterpillar stage or instar.

During the actual moulting the caterpillar is quite
[Pg 7]
active in freeing itself from the exuviae. But as soon as it
is free it is likely to rest quietly for some hours while the
tissues of the new skin are hardening. Then it begins
feeding upon the leaf again and continues taking its meals
at more or less regular intervals for several days. By that
time it will again have reached its limit of growth within
this second skin and the process of moulting must be repeated.
It takes place in the same way as before and the
caterpillar enters upon the third instar of its larval life.

This process of feeding and moulting is continued for
several weeks, the number of moults being usually four.
During the later stages the increase in size is more marked
each time the skin is shed, until the caterpillar finally
reaches its full growth as a larva and is ready for the wonderful
change to the quiet chrysalis in which all its caterpillar
organs are to be transformed into the very different
organs of the butterfly.

In the case of butterfly larvae one of the most interesting
features of the growth of the caterpillar is that of the remarkable
changes in colors and patterns of marking which
the caterpillar undergoes. One who had not followed
these changes would often be at a loss to recognize caterpillars
of slightly differing sizes as belonging to the same
species. These changes commonly show a remarkable
adaptation to the conditions of life, and generally tend to
the concealment of the caterpillar upon its food plant.
The stages of growth of the green-clouded swallowtail caterpillar
are illustrated on plate opposite page 80.

Before each moult the caterpillar is likely to spin a
silken web upon the leaf surface. It then entangles its
claws in the web to hold itself in place while the skin is
cast. (See plate, page 17.)

[Pg 8]

A week or ten days after the last moult of its caterpillar
growth the larva commonly becomes full fed and ready to
change to the chrysalis state. The details of the way in
which this is accomplished vary greatly with different
butterflies, as will be noted in the stories of many species
later in this book. In general, however, the caterpillar
provides a web of silk which it spins against some surface
where the chrysalis will be secure and in this web it entangles
its hind legs.
Sometimes there is the
additional protection
of a loop of silk over
the front end of the
body. After the legs
have become entangled
the caterpillar hangs
downward until the
skin splits open along
the median line of the back and gradually shrinks upward
until it is almost free, showing as it comes off a curious
creature which has some of the characteristic features of a
chrysalis. It is seldom at this stage of the same shape
as the chrysalis. When the caterpillar's skin is nearly
off this chrysalis-like object usually wriggles its body
quickly in a manner to entangle a curious set of hooks
attached to the upper end in the web of silken thread.
This hook-like projection is called the cremaster, and it
serves a very important purpose in holding the chrysalis
in position.

As soon as the cremaster is entangled in the web the cast
[Pg 9]
skin usually falls off and for a very short period the creature
hanging seems to be neither caterpillar nor chrysalis.
It is in fact in a transition stage between the two, and it
very soon shortens up and takes on the definite form of the
chrysalis, the outer tissues hardening into the characteristic
chrysalis skin.

From the fact that this chrysalis skin shows many of the
characteristic features of the future butterfly it is evident
that the change from the caterpillar to the butterfly really
began during the life of the larva. The nature of the
process by which this change takes place has long been a
puzzle to scientists. For the making of a butterfly is one
of the most wonderful phenomena in the outer world, and
it has challenged the attention of many acute observers.
Some two centuries ago the great Dutch naturalist, Swammerdam,
studied very carefully the development of many
insects, especially the butterfly. He found that if he
placed in boiling water a caterpillar that was ready to
pupate or become a chrysalis, the outer skin could easily be
removed, revealing beneath the immature butterfly with
well-developed legs and antennae. From these observations
he was led to believe that the process of growth was
simply a process of unfolding; that is, as Professor Packard
has expressed it, "That the form of the larva, pupa, and
imago preëxisted in the egg and even in the ovary; and that
the insects in these stages were distinct animals, contained
one inside the other, like a nest of boxes or a series of envelopes
one within the other." This was called the incasement
theory and it was held to be correct by naturalists
for nearly a century. It was discredited, however,
about a hundred years ago, but not until another fifty
[Pg 10]
years had passed was it definitely replaced by another and
much more convincing theory propounded by Weismann.

According to Weismann's theory, which is now well-established,
the process of development internally is a
much more continuous one than the external changes
would indicate. So far as the latter are concerned we
simply say that a caterpillar changes to a chrysalis and a
chrysalis to a butterfly, the transition in each case requiring
but a very short time. Internally, however, it has
been going on almost continuously from the early life of
the caterpillar. The various organs of the butterfly arise
from certain germinal disks or "imaginal" buds, the word
"imaginal" in this case being an adjective form of imago,
so that the imaginal buds are really simply buds for the
starting of growth of the various organs of the imago or
adult. As the caterpillars approach the chrysalis period
these imaginal buds rapidly develop into the various organs
of the butterfly. This process is helped along by the
breaking down of many of the tissues of the larva, this
broken-down tissue being then utilized for the production
of the new organs. About the time the chrysalis is formed
this breaking-down process becomes very general, so that
the newly formed chrysalis seems largely a mass of creamy
material which is soon used to build up the various parts
of the butterfly through the growth of the imaginal buds.

There is probably no phenomenon in the world of living
creatures which has attracted more attention than the
change of the chrysalis into the butterfly. It is not
strange that this is so. We see upon a tree or shrub or wall
[Pg 11]
an inert, apparently lifeless object, having no definite form
with which we can compare it with other things, having
neither eyes nor ears nor wings nor legs—an object apparently
of as little interest as a lifeless piece of rock. A
few minutes later we behold it again and note with astonishment
that this apparently inanimate being has been
suddenly transformed into the most ethereal of the creatures
of earth, with an exquisite beauty that cannot fail
to attract admiration, with wings of most delicate structure
for flying through the air, with eyes of a thousand
facets, with organs of smell that baffle the ingenuity of man
to explain, with vibrant antennae, and a slender tongue
adapted to feeding upon the nectar of flowers—the most
ambrosial of natural food. So it is not strange that this
emergence of a butterfly has long been the theme both of
poets and theologians and that it attracts the admiring
attention of childhood, youth, and age.

Fortunately, this change from chrysalis to butterfly may
readily be observed by any one who will take a little
trouble to rear the caterpillars or to watch chrysalids
found outdoors. The precise method of eclosion, as we
call this new kind of "hatching," varies somewhat with
different species but in general the process is similar
in all.

Those chrysalids which have a light colored outer skin
are especially desirable if we would watch this process.
One can see through the semi-transparent membrane the
developing butterfly within, until finally, just before it is
ready to break out, the markings of the wings and body
show distinctly. If at this time the chrysalis is placed in
the sunshine it is likely to come out at once, so that you can
observe it readily. It usually breaks apart over the head
[Pg 12]
and the newly released legs quickly grasp hold of the empty
skin as well as of the support to which it is attached. It
then hangs downward with a very large abdomen and
with the wings more or less crumpled up, but decidedly
larger than when they were confined within the chrysalis.
The wings, however, soon begin to lengthen as they are
stretched out, probably through the filling of the space by
the body juices. Commonly, the hind pair of wings become
full size before the front ones. In a short time the
wings attain their full size, the abdomen becomes smaller,
through the discharge of a liquid called meconium, and the
butterfly is likely to walk a few steps to a better position
where it will rest quietly for an hour or two while body and
wing tissues harden. After this it is likely to fly away to
lead the free life of a butterfly. (See plate, page 16.)

These changes from larva to chrysalis and from chrysalis
to adult in the case of the Monarch Butterfly are illustrated
on the plates opposite pages 32-33. A little
study of these photographs from life will help greatly to an
understanding of the process.

Some very interesting observations have been made by
Mr. J. Alston Moffat upon the method of the expansion
of the wings. In summarizing his investigations he
writes:

"When a wing is fully expanded, and for an hour or two
after, the membranes can be easily separated. Entrance
for a pin-point between them is to be found at the base of
the wing where the subcostal and median nervures come
close together. The membranes are united at the costal
and inner edges, which have to be cut to get them apart;
but they are free at the outer angle. At that time the
nervures are in two parts, half in one membrane and half
[Pg 13]
in the other, and open in the centre. The fluid which has
been stored up in the pupa enters the winglet at the opening
referred to, expanding the membranes as it passes along
between them, and the nervures at the same time, and when
it has extended to every portion of the wing, then it is fully
expanded. The expanding fluid is of a gummy consistency,
and as it dries, cements the membranes together, also the
edges of the half-nervures, and produces the hollow tubes
with which we are so familiar."

The butterflies and moths both belong to the great order
of scale-winged insects—the Lepidoptera. They are distinguished,
however, by certain general characteristics,
which hold true for the most part in both groups. The
butterflies fly by day; the
moths fly by night. All of
the higher butterflies go into
the chrysalis state without
making a silken cocoon,
while most of the higher
moths make such a cocoon.
The bodies of the butterflies
are usually slender, while
those of the larger moths are
stout. The antennae of the
butterflies are generally
slender and commonly enlarged
at the tip into a miniature club. The antennae of
the larger moths are commonly feathery or are long and
slender, tapering gradually toward the tip.

The characteristic features that distinguish a moth from
[Pg 14]
a butterfly are well illustrated in the plate opposite page
49, which shows one of the largest and most beautiful
moths in the world. It is the Cynthia moth. As may
be seen, the newly emerged moth is resting upon the silken
cocoon in which it spent its period as a pupa or chrysalis.
This cocoon was attached by the caterpillar to the twig
from which it hangs at the time it spun the cocoon. The
feathered antennae, the hairy legs, the thick thorax, and
large abdomen—all show very clearly in this side view of
the moth. As will be seen, the wings are large and very
suggestive of those of a butterfly and have the characteristic
eye-spots toward the tip and the crescent marks in the
middle, which are so often found on the wings of the larger
moths.

Some of these large moths on cloudy days occasionally
fly during daylight and, by the uninitiated, they are often
mistaken for large butterflies. One who will notice their
structure, however, will readily see the characteristic
features of the moth.

In the caterpillar stage, there are no hard and fast differences
between the larvae of butterflies and those of the
higher moths. In each case, the insect consists of a worm-like
body, having a small head provided with biting jaws
and simple eyes or ocelli. Back of the head are the three
rings of the thorax, each of which bears a pair of jointed
legs. Back of these three rings there are a considerable
number of other body rings making up the abdomen, on
the middle of which there are commonly four or five pairs
of fleshy prolegs, not jointed but furnished at the tip with
fine claws. At the hind end of the body there is another
pair of prolegs similar in structure.

[Pg 15]

Many students of American butterflies have occasionally
mentioned the fact that certain species seem to give off a
distinct scent which has frequently been spoken of as a
pleasing fragrance, suggesting sandalwood or some other
aromatic odor. The general subject as exemplified by
butterflies of other lands has been studied for many years
by Fritz Müller; and certain English entomologists have
paid considerable attention to it. A translation of the
Müller publications and an excellent summary of our present
knowledge of the subject is published in Dr. Longstaff's
book on butterfly hunting.

The odors given off by butterflies are divided into two
principal kinds, namely: first, those which are repulsive to
the senses of man, and evidently for the purpose of protecting
the butterflies from birds and other vertebrate
enemies—these are found in both
sexes; second, those which are
evidently for the purpose of sexual
attraction and confined to the male
butterflies—these scents are usually
attractive to the senses of man.

The aromatic scents of the second
group are generally produced by
means of certain scales or hairs of
many curious forms, which are
scattered over the surface of the
wings or are placed within certain
special pockets, generally near the borders of the wings.
These scales or hairs are called androconia. Some of them
much magnified are represented in the picture above.

Our knowledge of the scents given off by American
[Pg 16]
butterflies is very fragmentary, and it is highly desirable
that many more observations should be made upon the
subject. If collectors generally would make careful notes,
both in the field and upon the freshly killed butterflies at
home, we ought soon to be able greatly to extend our
knowledge. By holding the butterfly with a pair of forceps,
one can often determine whether the fragrance is
emitted. It is often helpful also to brush the hairs or
tufts where the androconia are attached, using a small, dry
camel's hair brush for the purpose.

Migration seems to be a general instinct in the animal
world, developed when a species becomes enormously
abundant. At such times this instinct apparently overcomes
all others and the creatures move on regardless of
obstacles and conditions that may mean certain death to
the vast majority. Such migrations among mammals
have often been recorded, one of the most notable examples
being that of the little lemmings which migrate at
periodical intervals in a way which has often been described.
Among the insects such migrations have been
frequently noticed, and the phenomenon has apparently
been observed oftener among the butterflies than in any
other group. Entomological literature during the last
hundred years contains a great many records of enormous
flights of butterflies over long distances, extending even
from Africa into Europe or from one part of America to
another far remote. As such migration is likely to happen
whenever a species becomes extremely abundant it probably
is Nature's way of providing for an extended food
supply for the succeeding generations. That it results in
the death of the great majority of the migrants is doubtless
true, but it must lead to vast experiments in extending
the geographic area inhabited by these species. Numerous
examples of such migrating swarms will be found in the
pages of this little book. (See plates, pages 17, 48-49, 160.)

The migrations thus considered are only exceptional
[Pg 17]
occurrences. There is, however, a regularly recurring
annual migration on the part of some butterflies which is
also a phenomenon of extraordinary interest. The most
notable example is that of the Monarch which apparently
follows the birds southward every autumn and comes northward
again in spring. There is much evidence to indicate
that in some slight degree other butterflies have a
similar habit, although the present observations are inadequate
to determine to what extent this habit has become
fixed in most of these species.

The ways in which butterflies spend the winter are always
of peculiar interest to the naturalist. Here are
creatures with four distinct stages of existence, each of
which has the possibility of carrying the species through
the season of cold. It is necessary to learn for each insect
which stage has been chosen for the purpose, and if
possible to find the reasons for the choice.

As a rule the related members of a group are likely to
hibernate in a similar stage. Thus most of the Swallowtails
pass the winter as chrysalids while practically all the
Angle-wings pass the winter as adults. This rule, however,
[Pg 18]
has many exceptions, for one will often find closely
related species which differ in the stage of hibernation.

As one would expect, the conditions of hibernation vary
greatly with the latitude. In the severe climate of the far
north the conditions are likely to be more uniform than
in the South where the milder climate permits greater variation
to the insect. In some cases where a butterfly
hibernates in only one stage in Canada it may pass the
winter in two or more stages in Alabama or Florida.

In many other orders of insects the egg is a favorite stage
for hibernation. Even in the closely related moths it is
often chosen by many species, but comparatively few butterflies
pass the winter in the egg stage. The little Bronze
Copper may serve as one example of this limited group.

The conditions as to hibernation by the larvae of butterflies
are very different from those of the egg. It has been
estimated that probably half of all our species pass the
winter in some stage of caterpillar growth. This varies all
the way from the newly hatched caterpillar which hibernates
without tasting food to the fully grown caterpillar
which hibernates full fed and changes to a chrysalis in
spring without eating anything at that time. A large proportion,
however, feed both in fall and spring, going
through the winter when approximately half grown.

The Graylings and the Fritillaries are typical examples
of butterflies which hibernate as newly hatched larvae.
The eggs are laid in autumn upon or near the food plants
and the caterpillars gnaw their way out of the shells and
seek seclusion at once, finding such shelter as they may
in the materials on the soil surface. In spring they begin
to feed as soon as the weather permits and complete their
growth from then on.

The half-grown caterpillars may hibernate either as free
[Pg 19]
creatures under boards, stones, or in the turfy grass, or
they may be protected by special shelters which they have
provided for themselves in their earlier life. In the case
of the latter each may have a shelter of its own or there
may be a common shelter for a colony of caterpillars.
Among the examples of those hibernating in miscellaneous
situations without special protection the caterpillars of
the Tawny Emperor, the Gray Emperor, the Pearl Crescent,
and some of the Graylings are examples. Among
those which hibernate in individual shelters the Sovereigns,
among which our common Viceroy is most familiar,
are good examples. Among those which hibernate in
a tent woven by the whole colony for the whole colony
the Baltimore or Phaeton butterfly is perhaps the best
example.

The caterpillars that hibernate when full grown may be
grouped in a way somewhat similar to those which are half
grown. Many species simply find such shelter as they
may at or near the soil surface. The Clouded Sulphur is a
good example of these. Others pass the winter in individual
shelters made from a leaf or blade. Several of
the larger Skippers are good examples of this condition.
So far as I know none of our species pass the winter in
colonial shelters when full grown.

It would be natural to suppose that the great majority
of butterflies would be likely to hibernate in the chrysalis
state. Here is a quiet stage in which the insect is unable
to move about or to take any food, in which it seems entirely
dormant and as a rule is fairly well hidden from the
view of enemies. We find, however, that only a rather
small proportion of our butterflies has chosen this stage
for survival through the winter. The most conspicuous
[Pg 20]
examples are the Swallowtails, nearly all of which hibernate
in the chrysalis stage. Other examples are the various
Whites, the Orange-tips, and isolated species like
the Wanderer, and the Spring Azure and the American
Copper. Practically all the butterflies that pass the
winter as chrysalids have a silken loop running around near
the middle of the body which helps to hold them securely
through the long winter months. Apparently none of
those chrysalids which hang straight downward are able to
survive the winter.

An adult butterfly seems a fragile creature to endure the
long cold months of arctic regions. Yet many of our most
beautiful species habitually hibernate as adults, finding
shelter in such situations as hollow trees, the crevices in
rocks, the openings beneath loose bark or even the outer
bark on the under side of a large branch. It is significant
that most of the adult-wintering Angle-wings are northern
rather than southern species, some of them being found in
arctic regions practically around the world. One of the
few southern forms that hibernates as an adult is the Goatweed
Emperor.

These examples are all cases of true hibernation in a
lethargic condition. There are certain butterflies, however,
which pass the winter as adults that remain active
during this period. Obviously this is impossible in latitudes
where the winter is severe, and it involves migration
to a warmer climate. The one notable illustration of this
is the Monarch butterfly which apparently flies southward
to the Gulf states at least and there remains until spring,
when individuals come north again. The southward migration
may be begun in Canada when the butterflies
gather together in enormous flocks that remind one of the
[Pg 21]
gathering of the clans with the migrating birds. This is
one of the least understood of insect activities but it has
been observed so often and over so long a period of years
that there seems to be no questioning the general habit.

Like everything else in relation to living things there are
numerous variations in the prevailing modes of hibernation.
In the case of many species one can find combinations
of two or more stages in which the winter is passed.
Probably if we could observe with sufficient care we might
be able to find somewhere examples of almost any conceivable
double combination—as egg with larva or chrysalis
or adult—the insect hibernating in two of these stages.
Many examples are known in which both chrysalis and
adult of the same species pass the winter and also of those
in which young and well-grown larvae pass the winter.
As one would expect, the conditions as to such combinations
are likely to be more variable in southern than in
northern regions.

Notwithstanding all the attention which has been paid
to butterfly life-histories there is still some uncertainty in
regard to the hibernation of many of our species. One of
the most interesting series of observations which a young
naturalist could undertake would be to learn positively
how each species of butterfly in his locality passes the
winter.

In some species of butterflies there is a special adaptation
to passing through the hottest part of the summer season
in a state of lethargy which is suggestive of the torpor of
the hibernating period. This phase of butterfly existence
[Pg 22]
has not been extensively studied and there are indications
that it exists more generally than has been commonly supposed.
It has been noticed even in northern New England
that some of the Angle-wings seek shelter and become
lethargic during August. Apparently this is an adaptation
to single broodedness, helping to carry the species through
the year without the exhaustion incident to the continued
activity of the butterfly.

In more southern regions, especially in the hot, dry
climates where vegetation withers in midsummer, it is well
known that some caterpillars become lethargic, remaining
inactive until the fall rains start vegetation into
growth. The Orange-sulphur butterfly is a good example
of this.

This summer lethargy offers excellent opportunity for
careful study. Any observer who finds a butterfly hidden
away in summer under boards, the bark of a tree, or in a
stone pile should look carefully to see what species it is and
how the butterfly behaves. Such observations should be
sent to the entomological journals in order that our knowledge
of the subject may be increased.

The fact has long been noticed that various butterflies
have the habit at times of feigning death and dropping to
the ground where they may lie motionless for a considerable
period. This habit is most easily observed in some of
the Angle-wings, especially those which hibernate as
adults. Those species have the under surfaces of their
wings colored in various bark-picturing patterns and apparently
live through the winter to some extent, resting
[Pg 23]
beneath the bark of large branches or upon the trunks of
trees. Many of them also secrete themselves in hollow
trees or beneath loose bark or in board piles or stone walls.
It is probable, however, that during the long ages when
these insects were adapting themselves to their life conditions,
before man interfered with the natural order and
furnished various more or less artificial places for hibernation,
these butterflies rested more generally upon the under
side of branches than they do now.

Even in warm weather when one of these butterflies is
suddenly disturbed it is likely to fold its legs upon its body
and drop to the ground, allowing itself to be handled without
showing any signs of life. This habit is doubtless of
value, especially during hibernation or possibly during the
summer lethargy or aestivation, the latter a habit which
may be more general among these butterflies than is now
supposed. As the insect lies motionless upon the ground
it is very likely to blend so thoroughly with its surroundings
that it becomes concealed, and any bird which had
startled it from the branch above would have difficulty in
finding it.

Some very interesting observations have been made
upon the death-feigning instincts of various other insects,
especially the beetles. But no one so far as I know has yet
made an extended study of the subject in relation to our
American butterflies. It is an excellent field for investigation
and offers unusual opportunities for photographic
records. One of the pictures opposite page 32 shows a
photograph which I took of a Mourning Cloak as it was
thus playing 'possum. This species exhibits the instinct
to a marked degree.

[Pg 24]

The caterpillars of butterflies and moths form a large
part of the food of insect-eating birds. These caterpillars
are especially adapted for such a purpose and in the economy
of nature they play a very important part in keeping
alive the feathered tribes. During the long ages through
which both birds and insects have been developing side by
side, there have been many remarkable inter-relations established
which tend on the one hand to prevent the birds
from exterminating the insects and on the other to prevent
the insects from causing the birds to starve. The most
important of these, so far as the caterpillars are concerned,
are the various devices by which these insects protect
themselves from attack, by hiding away where birds are
not likely to find them, by clothing their bodies with
spiny hairs, by other methods of rendering themselves distasteful,
or by various phases of concealing coloration.
On the whole, the examples of the latter are not so numerous
or so easily found in the case of the larvae of butterflies
as in those of moths.

Perhaps the basal principle of concealing coloration is
the law of counter-shading, first partially announced by
Prof. E. B. Poulton, and later much more elaborately
worked out by Mr. Abbott H. Thayer, and discussed at
length by Mr. Gerald H. Thayer in his remarkable volume,
"Concealing Coloration in the Animal Kingdom." The
law of counter-shading is tersely stated in these words:
"Animals are painted by nature darkest on those parts
which tend to be most lighted by the sky's light and vice
versa." As this law works out on most animals that live
on or near the ground, the upper part of the body exposed
[Pg 25]
to the direct light from above is dark; and the under part,
shut off from the upper light and receiving only the small
reflection from below, is enough lighter to make the appearance
of the creature in its natural environment of a
uniform tone from back to breast.

Nearly all caterpillars illustrate this law of counter-shading.
If they are in the habit of feeding or resting with
their feet downward the back will be darker and the under
side lighter, but if they are in the habit of feeding or
resting in the opposite position these color tones will be
reversed. One can find examples of such conditions almost
any summer's day by a little searching of trees or
shrubs.

This law of counter-shading, however, is really only the
basis for the coloration of caterpillars or other animals. It
tends, chiefly, to make the creature appear as a flat plane
when seen from the side, and may be said in a way to prepare
the canvas upon which Nature paints her more distinctive
pictures. A great many examples of color markings
that tend to conceal the caterpillar amid its natural
surroundings may be found by any one who will study the
subject and it offers one of the most interesting fields for
investigation. The chapter on caterpillars in the above-mentioned
book by Mr. Thayer should serve as a starting
point for any one taking up the subject.

Butterflies differ from caterpillars and from most other
animals in the fact that their coloring is chiefly shown upon
the flat surfaces of the wings. Consequently, there is less
opportunity for the various phases of counter-shading
which is so commonly shown in the larger caterpillars.
The bodies of nearly all butterflies do exhibit this phenomenon,
but these bodies are relatively so small that counter-shading
[Pg 26]
plays but a little part in the general display.

Upon the outstretched membranes of the butterflies'
wings Nature through the long ages of development has
painted a great variety of pictures. Those which tend to
protect the insect by concealment amid its surroundings are
most commonly spread on the under surface of the wings.
Especially is this true in the case of those species which
pass the winter as adults or which have the habit of resting
upon the bark of trees, the sides of rocks, or the surface of
the ground. We here find some of the most interesting
examples of obliterative coloring that occur in nature.
Some butterflies have taken on the look of tree bark,
others the sombre appearance of weathered rocks, while
still others are painted with the images of flowerets and
their stems.

Many of the butterflies, especially the Angle-wings,
which are marked on the under surface in various protective
colors, are admirable examples of that phase of
animal coloring which is spoken of as dazzling coloration.
This is apparently one of the most important protective
devices to be found in Nature and the validity of it is now
generally conceded by naturalists. One phase of it, which
may be called eclipsing coloration, seems to have been first
definitely formulated by the late Lord Walsingham, a
famous English entomologist who enunciated it in an address
as president of the Entomological Society of London.
The most significant paragraphs in that address were these:

"My attention was lately drawn to a passage in Herbert
Spencer's 'Essay on the Morals of Trade.' He writes:
'As when tasting different foods or wines the palate is disabled
[Pg 27]
by something strongly flavored from appreciating
the more delicate flavor of another thing afterward taken,
so with the other organs of sense a temporary disability
follows an excessive stimulation. This holds not only
with the eyes in judging of colors, but also with the fingers
in judging of texture.'

"Here, I think, we have an explanation of the principle
on which protection is undoubtedly afforded to certain insects
by the possession of bright coloring on such parts of
their wings or bodies as can be instantly covered and concealed
at will. It is an undoubted fact, and one which
must have been observed by nearly all collectors of insects
abroad, and perhaps also in our own country, that it
is more easy to follow with the eye the rapid movements of
a more conspicuous insect soberly and uniformly colored
than those of an insect capable of changing in an instant the
appearance it presents. The eye, having once fixed itself
upon an object of a certain form and color, conveys to the
mind a corresponding impression, and, if that impression
is suddenly found to be unreliable, the instruction which
the mind conveys to the eye becomes also unreliable, and
the rapidity with which the impression and consequent
instruction can be changed cannot always compete successfully
with the rapid transformation effected by the insect
in its effort to escape."

Lord Walsingham then goes on to suggest that this intermittent
play of bright colors probably has as confusing
effect upon birds and other predaceous vertebrates as upon
man; and that on this hypothesis such colors can be
accounted for more satisfactorily than upon any other yet
suggested. Since then the significance of this theory has
been repeatedly pointed out by Professor Poulton, Mr.
[Pg 28]
Abbott H. Thayer, and various other authorities upon
animal coloring. The terms dazzling and eclipsing have
been applied to the phenomenon.

Shortly after Lord Walsingham propounded this theory
I called attention[A] to its fitness in explaining some of the
most interesting color phases shown by American insects,
notably the moths and locusts which have brilliantly
colored under wings and protectively colored upper wings.

The animals of the north show numberless color phases
of interest. One of the most curious of these is exhibited
by several families of insects in which the outer wings are
protectively colored in dull hues and the under wings
brightly colored. For example, there are many species of
moths belonging to the genus Catocala found throughout
the United States. These are insects of good size,
the larger ones measuring three inches in expanse of
wings, and the majority of them being at least two thirds
that size. Most of them live during the day on the bark of
trees, with their front wings folded together over the back.
The colors and markings of these wings, as well as of the
rest of the exposed portions of the body, are such as to
assimilate closely with the bark of the tree upon which the
insect rests. In such a situation it requires a sharp eye to
detect the presence of the moth, which, unless disturbed,
flies only at night, remaining all day exposed to the attacks
of many enemies. Probably the most important of these
are the birds, especially species like the woodpeckers,
which are constantly exploring all portions of the trunks of
trees.

The chief beauty of these Catocalas, as they are seen
[Pg 29]
spread out in the museum cabinet, lies in the fact that the
hind wings, which, when the moth is at rest in life, are concealed
by the front ones, are brightly colored in contrasting
hues of black, red, and white in various brilliant combinations.
These colors, in connection with the soft and
blended tones of the front wings, make a very handsome
insect.

It is easy to see that when one of these Underwing
Moths is driven to flight by a woodpecker or other bark-searching
bird it would show during its rapid, irregular
flight the bright colors of the under wings which would be
instantly hidden upon alighting and the very different
coloring of the upper wings blending with the bark would
be substituted. Consequently, the bird would be very
likely to be baffled in its pursuit.

On the rocky hills and sandy plains of New England
there are several species of grasshoppers or locusts that
also illustrate these principles. If you walk along a strip
of sandy land in summer, you start to flight certain locusts
which soon alight, and when searched for will be found
closely to assimilate in color the sand upon which they
rest. On a neighboring granite-ribbed hill you will find
few if any of this species of locust, but instead there occur
two or three quite different species, which when at rest
closely resemble the lichen-covered rocks. This resemblance
is very striking, and is found in all stages of the insect's
existence. If now you go to a lowland meadow, still
another color phase will be found to prevail—the green
grass is swarming with the so-called "long-horned" grasshoppers,
[Pg 30]
which are green throughout with linear bodies,
and long, slender legs and antennae.

Each of these three groups of insects is adapted to its
particular habitat. All are constantly persecuted by
birds, and have been so persecuted for unnumbered ages in
the past. In every generation the individuals have
varied, some toward closer resemblance to environment,
others in an opposite direction. The more conspicuous
insects have been constantly taken, and the least conspicuous
as constantly left to reproduce. Were the three
groups to change places to-day, the green grasshoppers
from the meadows going to sandy surfaces, the sand-colored
locusts going to rocky hills, and the "mossbacks"
from the hills to the lowland meadows, each would become
conspicuous, and the birds would have such a feast
as is seldom spread before them.

The species living on sand and rocks are often "flushed"
by birds. Those which flew but a few feet would be
likely to be captured by the pursuing bird; those which
flew farther would stand a better chance of escaping.
Similarly, those which flew slowly and in a straight line
would be more likely to be caught than those which flew
rapidly and took a zigzag course. As a consequence of the
selection thus brought about through the elimination of
those which flew slowly along the straight and narrow way
that led to death, you will find that most locusts living in
exposed situations when startled fly some distance in a
rapid, zigzag manner.

But still another element of safety has been introduced
by some species of these locusts through the adoption of
the color tactics of the Catocala moths. The under wings
of the common Carolina locust—the species most abundant
[Pg 31]
along the highway—are black, bordered with yellowish
white. The base of the hind wings of a related species
living on the Western plains is bluish, while in the large
coral-winged locust of the Eastern states the hind wings
are red, bordered with black. In nearly all of the species
of these locusts frequenting open localities where they are
liable to disturbance by birds or other animals, the hind
wings exhibit contrasting colors in flight. Most of them
also fly in a zigzag line, and alight in a most erratic manner.
Many times I have had difficulty in determining the
exact landfall of one of these peculiar creatures, and I believe
Lord Walsingham's suggestion is well exemplified in
them. (See page 33.)

The most famous example of a combination of this
dazzling coloring of the upper wing surface with a definite
protective coloring of the under wing surface is the Kallima
butterfly which is illustrated in almost every book dealing
with animal coloration. The under wing surface bears a
striking resemblance to a leaf and the hind wings project
to form a tail which looks like the petiole of the leaf, and
there is also a mark running across the wings which
mimics the midrib. When the butterfly is flying the
brilliant colors of the upper surface are visible, but when it
alights these are instantly replaced by the sombre tone
of the under surface, so that apparently the insect completely
disappears and in its place there is only a leaf
attached to a branch in a most natural position. In Dr.
Longstaff's book there is an illustration of another tropical
butterfly, Eronia cleodora, which resembles on its under
surface a yellow disease-stricken leaf but on its upper
surface gives a brilliant combination of black and white.
This insect alights upon the leaves which it resembles
[Pg 32]
and is a striking example of both dazzling and mimicking
coloration.

Many of our own butterflies, notably the Angle-wings,
are excellent examples of a similar combination. In flight
they reveal conspicuous colors which are instantly hidden
upon alighting and then one only sees the bark-like or dead
leaf-like under surface as may be seen in the plate opposite
pages 160-161. The iridescence upon the upper wing surface
of many butterflies, whose under wing surface is colored in
concealing tones, is doubtless also of great use to the insect
in a similar way. There is a splendid opportunity here for
some observer to study this phase of butterfly activity and
to get photographs of the insects amid their natural surroundings.

In their book upon "Concealing Coloration" the Messrs.
Thayer have called attention to many interesting phases
of dazzling coloration. They show that bright marks like
the eye-spots or ocelli, which form so prominent a feature
on the wing surfaces of many butterflies, really helped to
conceal the insect amid its natural surroundings, by drawing
the eye away from the outlines of wings and body so
that the latter tend to disappear. Their discussion of this
subject opens up another vast field for outdoor observations
of absorbing interest, in which there is great need for
many active workers.

[Pg 33]

One who collects the Underwing moths soon discovers
that the light colored species which resemble the bark of
birch trees are likely to be found upon the trunks of those
trees, and that the dark colored kinds which resemble the
bark of maple trees are likely to be found upon the trunks
of these. Obviously, were this not true the protective
coloring would avail but little and it is evident that these
moths are able to select a background which is of advantage
in helping to conceal them.

There is much evidence to show that in a similar way the
butterflies are able by means of a well-developed color
sense to select the places where they alight. One of the
most notable examples is that of a South American species,
Peridromia feronia. This is a silvery gray butterfly which
alights head downward upon the bark of certain palm trees
that have silvery gray stems and remains there with its
wings fully expanded so that it utilizes the background in
much the same way that the Underwing moths do.
"When disturbed they will return to the same tree again
and again."

One who will observe the habits of our Angle-wings and
other butterflies which have obliterative coloring of the
under wing surface can easily learn that these insects
select rather carefully the places where they alight. It
will be found that as a rule each species utilizes a background
that blends with its own coloring. It is probable
that this habit is much more common in other groups of butterflies
than has been realized. Much evidence of this sort
has been collected regarding the butterflies of Europe and
other countries, as well as near our own borders in America.

The colors of a great many animals, including a considerable
percentage of American butterflies and their
larvae, have been commonly explained by the theory of
warning colors. According to this theory animals which
[Pg 34]
were for any reason not edible by birds and mammals have
developed various striking combinations of color such as
black and yellow, red and black, or black and white, in
order to advertise to their foes their inedible qualities.
This theory has been very generally accepted by naturalists
and will be found expounded at length in many books published
during the last quarter century.

The whole subject of the validity of warning coloration
has recently been brought up for reconsideration by the illuminating
investigations of Mr. Abbott H. Thayer and
discussed at length in the book upon "Concealing Coloration"
already mentioned. In an appendix to this book
dated 1908 Mr. Thayer states that he no longer holds the
belief that "there must somewhere be warning colors."
He has convincingly shown that a large proportion of the
animals which were supposed to be examples of this theory
are really illustrations of concealing coloration. But there
yet remain various facts which have been conclusively
proven that apparently require the theory of warning
colors to explain them. Here is another field in which
there is a real need for much careful investigation under
conditions that are rigidly scientific.

Along with the theory of warning coloration the theory
of mimicry has been propounded. According to this if a
butterfly in a given region shows warning coloration,
having developed such coloration because it is distasteful
to birds and mammals, it may be mimicked by another
butterfly in the same region belonging to another group,
the latter butterfly being edible, but benefiting by its resemblance
to the distasteful species, because birds or
mammals mistake it for the latter and do not attempt to
catch it. The most notable example of such mimicry in
[Pg 35]
North America is that of the Monarch butterfly, which is
supposed to be the distasteful species, and the Viceroy
butterfly, which is supposed to mimic it. Several other
instances of mimicry are found among our own butterflies,
while in South America, Africa, and Asia there are numberless
examples.

It has long been known that the green surfaces of plants
respond to the stimulus of the sun's rays in a most remarkable
manner. This response has commonly been called
heliotropism and it has been carefully studied by botanists
all over the habitable world. More recently, the fact has
been observed that many animals respond in certain definite
ways to the stimulus of direct sunshine and the same
term has been applied in this case. Very little attention
has been given to the subject of heliotropism until within a
few recent years. But the observations which have been
made by Parker, Longstaff, Dixey, and others open up a
most interesting field for further observation. An admirable
summary of our present knowledge of the subject
has been published by Dr. Longstaff in his book "Butterfly
Hunting in Many Lands."

One of the earliest observations upon this subject was
that published in my book "Nature Biographies" which appeared
in June, 1901, concerning the habit in the Mourning
Cloak: "On a spring-like day early in November (the 8th)
I came across one of these butterflies basking in the sunshine
upon the ties of a railway track. It rested with its
wings wide open. On being disturbed, it would fly a short
distance and then alight, and I was interested to notice
[Pg 36]
that after alighting it would always turn about until the
hind end of its body pointed in the direction of the sun, so
that the sun's rays struck its wings and body nearly at
right angles. I repeatedly observed this habit of getting
into the position in which the most benefit from the sunshine
was received, and it is of interest as showing the extreme
delicacy of perception toward the warmth of sunshine
which these creatures possess."

A little later, some very elaborate observations were
made upon this habit of the Mourning Cloak by Prof.
G. H. Parker of Harvard University. Professor Parker
noticed that during the warm spells in winter the butterflies
came out of their hiding places and after alighting, always
placed themselves with their heads away from the direction
of the sun and their bodies lying nearly at right
angles to the sun's rays. By experiment, he found that
they adjusted themselves to this position as soon as they
were fully exposed to direct sunshine, even if at the time of
alighting they were in a shadow. He found that this
movement was a reflex action through the eyes, for when
the eyes were blinded no such adjustment took place. He
called it negative heliotropism.

Dr. Longstaff uses the term orientation for this adjustment
of the butterfly to the sun's rays and he finds it is a
very general habit, especially with the Angle-wings, for the
butterfly thus to orient itself after alighting, in such a way
that the hind end of the body points toward the sun. This
occurs not only with those species which keep their wings
spread open when they alight but also with those in which
the wings are closed together and held in a vertical position
on alighting.

Various explanations of this phenomenon have been
[Pg 37]
offered but apparently none of them are yet generally
accepted. Were the habit confined to butterflies like the
Mourning Cloak, it would seem easy to prove that a main
advantage was found in the benefit derived from the heat
rays of the sun. Were it confined to those species which
always fold their wings on alighting, it would seem easy to
believe that it was a device for reducing the shadow cast by
the insect to its lowest terms. It has also been suggested
that the habit is for the purpose of revealing to the fullest
extent the markings of the butterfly. Evidently there is
here an ample field for further investigation before definite
conclusions are reached.

Another field for most interesting studies upon the
habits of living butterflies has been opened up by the very
interesting discussion of list and shadow in Colonel G. B.
Longstaff's fascinating book, "Butterfly Hunting in Many
Lands." He there summarizes his numerous observations
upon butterflies in various localities which he has seen to
lean over at a decided angle when they alight. He defines
"List" as "an attitude resulting from the rotation
of the insect about its longitudinal axis, as heliotropism results
from a rotation about an imaginary vertical axis at
right angles to this." The name is adapted from the
sailors' term applied to a vessel leaning to one side or another
in a storm.

Apparently this interesting habit was first called to the
attention of European entomologists by an observation of
Colonel C. T. Bingham made in 1878, but not published
[Pg 38]
until long afterward. The observation was this:

"The Melanitis was there among dead leaves, its wings
folded and looking for all the world a dead, dry leaf itself.
With regard to Melanitis, I have not seen it recorded anywhere
that the species of this genus when disturbed fly
a little way, drop suddenly into the undergrowth with
closed wings, and invariably lie a little askew and slanting,
which still more increases their likeness to a dead leaf casually
fallen to the ground."

Long before this was printed, however, a similar habit
had been observed by Scudder in the case of our White
Mountain butterfly (Oenis semidea). But this species is
so exceptional in its habitat that the habit seems to have
been considered a special adaptation to the wind-swept
mountain top. The possibility of its being at all general
among the butterflies in lowlands seems to have been overlooked.

The observations recorded by Longstaff relate chiefly to
various members of the Satyrid group. For example, a
common Grayling, Satyrus semele, was watched many
times as it settled on the ground. As a rule three motions
are gone through in regular sequence: the wings are
brought together over the back; the forewings are drawn
between the hind wings; the whole is thrown over to right
or left to the extent of thirty, forty, or even fifty degrees.

This habit, of course, is of advantage to the insect. It
seems possible that the advantage might be explained in
either of two ways: first, the leaning over on the ground
among grasses and fallen leaves might help to render
the disguising coloration of the insect more effective, the
large ocelli serving to draw the eye away from the outline
of body and wing; second, the listing of the butterfly toward
[Pg 39]
the sun tends to reduce the shadow and to hide it beneath
the wings. There is no doubt that when a Grayling
butterfly lights upon the ground in strong sunshine the
shadow it casts is more conspicuous than the insect itself
and the hiding of this might be of distinct advantage in
helping it to escape observation. It is significant that in
England the butterflies observed appear to lean over more
frequently in sunshine than in shade. An observation of
Mr. E. G. Waddilove, reported by Colonel Longstaff, is
interesting in this connection:

"A Grayling settled on a patch of bare black peat earth,
shut up its wings vertically, and crawled at once some two
yards to the edge of the patch to where some fir-needles, a
cone or two, and a few brittle twigs were lying, and then becoming
stationary threw itself over at an angle of some
forty-five degrees square to the sun. It thus became quite
indistinguishable from its surroundings."

Apparently, some of the Angle-wings may have the same
habit, for in Barrett's "Lepidoptera of the British Islands,"
there is a note in regard to Grapta C-album to the effect
that it is fond of sunning itself in roads, on warm walls, or
on the ground upon dead leaves in sheltered valleys.
"Here, if the sun becomes overclouded, it will sometimes
close its wings and almost lie down, in such a manner that
to distinguish its brown and green marbled under side from
the dead leaves is almost impossible."

Here is a most fascinating opportunity for American
observers to determine definitely the facts in regard to our
numerous species of butterflies that may show this habit.
An observer with a reflex type of camera might easily be
able to get pictures that would be of great value in helping
to determine the principal facts in regard to the subject.
[Pg 40]
Our common Graylings and numerous species of Angle-wings
are so abundant and easily observed that they offer
splendid opportunities to any one who will undertake a
serious study of the subject.

All three of the earlier stages of butterflies—egg, larva,
and chrysalis—are subject to attack by various parasitic
insects which develop at the expense of the host. Such
parasites are probably the most important check upon the
increase of butterflies, and along with birds, mammals,
and bacterial diseases, they help to keep up that balance of
nature which in the long run maintains a surprising uniformity
in the numbers of each kind of butterfly.

For the most part these insect parasites are small four-winged
flies, although many of them are two-winged flies.
In either case the life stages show a series of changes much
like those of the butterflies themselves. Each parasite
exists first as an egg, second as a larva, third as a pupa, and
fourth as an adult fly. The larval stage, however, is
simply that of a footless grub which lives within the body
of its victim absorbing its life blood and gradually killing it.

The parasites of butterfly eggs are legion. They are
tiny flies whose life-story in briefest summary is this: The
butterfly lays an egg. The parasite fly finds this egg soon
after it is laid, and pierces the shell with her tiny, sharply
pointed ovipositor and deposits inside of the shell her own
microscopic egg. This egg within the egg soon hatches
into a curious little larva that develops at the expense of
the contents of the butterfly egg shell, and soon absorbs
the whole of them. The parasite larva now changes to a
[Pg 41]
pupa which a little later changes again to an adult fly like
the one that laid the parasite egg in the beginning. Of
course the butterfly egg never hatches into a caterpillar.

One of the most interesting questions in regard to these
egg parasites is this: How does the tiny parasitic fly find
the newly laid egg? One would think that the proverbial
search for a needle in a haymow would be an easy task
compared with that of a fly about as large as the head of a
pin finding a butterfly egg of similar size upon some part of
one of the millions of leaves upon the trees and shrubs in
field and forest. Yet the search is successful, as every one
who has tried to get caterpillars from eggs found out of
doors will testify. On a later page in this book, in connection
with the story of the life of the Mourning Cloak
butterfly, I have recorded some observations upon the little
parasite which seemed to have been riding around upon the
body of the butterfly waiting for her to lay her eggs.

For one parasite upon the eggs of butterflies, there
probably are dozens that attack the caterpillars. A large
proportion of the butterfly larvae brought in from outdoors,
especially those which are half-grown or more, will
yield not butterflies but parasites. This is the experience
of practically every one who attempts to rear these insects,
and it emphasizes the value of the advice that in
order to get fine specimens, it is desirable to rear them
from eggs laid by butterflies beneath netting or in cages.

The life-histories of the parasites that attack caterpillars
vary greatly. The simplest are those of the large
Ichneumon flies: The mother fly lays an egg beneath the
skin of the caterpillar. The egg hatches into a larva that
absorbs the fatty parts of the body of the caterpillar,
gradually growing larger and larger until at last it reaches
[Pg 42]
a length of possibly an inch. By this time it is likely to
have absorbed so large a part of the inside of the caterpillar
that the latter dies. The parasite larva now changes
to a pupa, either inside or outside the skin of the caterpillar,
and a little later changes again to an adult Ichneumon
fly.

In the case just given, one egg only was deposited within
the skin of the caterpillar. In many others, however, a
large number of eggs may be so deposited by a single fly.
A special group of Ichneumon flies, called the Microgasters,
contains many parasites that have this peculiarity.
The Microgaster larvae on coming forth from the caterpillar
have the habit of spinning tiny cocoons within
which they change to pupae. By collecting some cabbage
worms which are nearly full grown, and keeping them in
a glass jar one can generally get a considerable number
of these Microgaster cocoons and rear the flies from
them.

Another group of caterpillar parasites is still more minute.
They are called the Chalcid flies. Their life-histories
are full of interest, and might easily furnish opportunity
for a long lifetime of study and experiment. One is
likely to get hundreds of these Chalcid flies from a single
caterpillar.

Another interesting group of parasites is that of the
two-winged Tachina flies (see cut on this page). The life-story
of some of these is comparatively simple: a buzzing
fly, looking much like a large housefly, lays a small whitish
[Pg 43]
egg upon the skin of a caterpillar. This egg is glued
tightly and is large enough to be readily seen by the unaided
eye. It hatches into a tiny larva that eats its way
through the part of the shell glued to the caterpillar's skin,
and through the latter at the same time. So the newly
hatched Tachina larva finds itself in the body of its caterpillar
host. It lives there, absorbing the fatty juices
around it until at last it either kills or stupefies its unfortunate
victim. It has then become full grown as a
larva, and its last larval skin hardens into a brown pupa-case
within which the little creature changes into a pupa.
It may or may not have burrowed through the skin of the
caterpillar before this happened. A little later the pupa
changes to a Tachina fly which breaks apart the pupa-case
and flies out into the world.

It has lately been found, however, that many Tachinids
have much more complicated life-histories than this. I
have already discussed some of the more important of these
in my book entitled, "Seeing Nature First" (pages
150-158).

One can frequently rear parasites from the chrysalids of
butterflies, but in many cases it is probable that these began
their parasitic development in the caterpillars, which
were able to change to chrysalids before being killed.
In some cases, however, the chrysalids seem to be attacked,
especially by certain Ichneumon flies.

There are few things in the world more interesting to
watch than the wonderful changes which a moth or butterfly
goes through in the course of its life. You find on a
[Pg 44]
tree or shrub a worm-like caterpillar. You take it in
charge, placing it in a box or jar where you can provide
leaves for its food and soon it either spins around itself a
silken shroud, thus hiding from your sight, or else it simply
seems to change to a lifeless object without eyes or wings
or legs, unable to move about and motionless, save for a
slight wriggle when you touch it. Yet if you keep the
shroud or the mummy-like object for two or three weeks you
are likely to see a beautiful moth come from the shroud
or a glorious butterfly break out of the mummy case.
(See plate, page 49.) So you can get the realest kind of
moving pictures by simply bringing in the caterpillars that
are easily found in garden, field, and wood.

To collect these caterpillars it is only necessary to be
provided with a pair of sharp eyes and an empty coffee can
or some other form of tin box. Go out into the garden or
along the borders of the woods. Look carefully. If you
see places where leaves have been eaten, search the leaves
near by and you are likely to find one or more of the caterpillars
that caused the injury. Transfer them to the box
and take them home with a few leaves of the food plant.
There place them in some form of vivarium, which simply
means a box or cage in which you can keep living creatures.

The most satisfactory cages for rearing caterpillars are
those which are open above so that there is not even a
glass plate between the observer and the insect. This
kind of vivarium is easily made by using a band of some
sticky substance like the tree tanglefoot with which trees
are commonly banded, or a strip of sticky fly paper. Any
wide shallow box may be used by simply placing an inch-wide
band of the sticky material around the vertical sides
near the top. The caterpillars will be free to move all over
[Pg 45]
the open box but they cannot cross the band to escape.
Fresh leaves are easily placed in the open box and the
withered ones removed.

The same plan may be adopted with wide glass jars, like
the ordinary battery jar. Choose a rather large one and
smear the inner side near the top with a band of sticky material.
The caterpillars are thus prevented from crawling
out, but they are open to observation at all times. (See
plate, pages 48-49.)

In the case of the caterpillars that change to butterflies
no soil need be placed in the bottom of the jar as these will
attach their chrysalids to the sides or to a stick or board
which may easily be put in. In the case of many caterpillars
that change to moths, however, it is desirable to
place about two inches of soil in the bottom of the jar.
Then if the caterpillars are not cocoon spinners they can
burrow into the soil when they are ready to change to
pupae.

Instead of applying the sticky material directly to the
glass a strip of sticky fly paper may be glued to it.

As a rule the butterfly caterpillar easiest to find lives
upon cabbages. Go into the garden and you are likely to
see a dozen green caterpillars upon as many cabbage
plants. Bring in several of the larger ones and place them
in a vivarium with some fresh cabbage leaves. In a few
days some of them will be likely to fasten themselves to
the vertical sides of the vivarium and shed the caterpillar
skin. Each thus becomes a chrysalis. About ten days
later this chrysalis skin will break open and a white
Cabbage butterfly will come out.

So your caterpillar goes through the four different
stages of insect life. It was first an egg laid upon the leaf
[Pg 46]
by a butterfly; the egg hatched into the caterpillar or
larva; the larva changed to the chrysalis; the chrysalis
changed to the butterfly or adult insect.

One of the most satisfactory ways to rear the caterpillars
of butterflies is to get the females to lay their eggs upon the
food plant. In the case of many species this is not difficult.
The simplest way is to enclose the mother butterfly
in a small gauze bag tied over the branch of the food
plant. If she has eggs ready to deposit she is very likely
to lay them under these conditions. After they are laid
the mother butterfly may be allowed to escape, but it is well
to replace the gauze protection as a safeguard against
many sorts of enemies which may destroy the eggs or the
young caterpillars that hatch from them. Another way is
to enclose the butterflies with a twig of the food plant in a
glass jar, sealing it tight to prevent the leaves from wilting.
The butterfly is likely after she has quieted down to
lay her eggs upon the leaves. According to William G.
Wright, who speaks from his long experience with the butterflies
of the West Coast, these genera will lay their eggs on
anything: Parnassius, Argynnis, Euptoieta, Neonympha,
and all members of the family Satyridae. In these cases
one can get the eggs by simply enclosing the butterflies
in glass jars or gauze nets without even the leaves of the
food plant. William H. Edwards found in his long experience
that one can get the eggs of practically all butterflies
in confinement, provided only the insects are sufficiently
mature so that the eggs are ready to be laid. He
found that the cause of failure to get eggs from many of the
Fritillaries early in the season was that the eggs were not
mature and that from the same kinds of butterflies with
which he failed early in the summer he got plenty of eggs
[Pg 47]
in September.

There is here a rich field for observation and experiment
for every naturalist who wishes to take up the study of
butterflies. He can be sure of the parentage of the caterpillars
and can trace them from the very moment of egg-laying
through all their wonderful changes until they become
butterflies again.

There is a famous old saying that to make hare stew it is
first necessary to catch your hare. So if one wishes to
make perfect pictures of butterflies it is first necessary to
get the caterpillars. For though caterpillars are not
butterflies they are butterflies in the making and they will
show you most interesting stages in nature's manufacture
of these dainty and exquisite creatures. This is not, however,
the chief reason why the photographer should get
them. He will wish to make perfect pictures and in order
to do this he must have not only perfect specimens but
living butterflies which are willing to look pleasant while
he makes comparatively long exposures under conditions of
light that he can control. If you catch a butterfly outdoors
and bring it in you will be likely to find that it is by
no means a docile subject. The sunlight shining through
the nearest window will be a call which you cannot counteract
and your butterfly will constantly respond to it in a
most vexing manner. So you must catch the butterfly
young and take advantage of a brief but docile period in
their lives when they are willing to pose before your camera
in quite a remarkable manner. This is the period just
after the butterfly emerges from the chrysalis when its
[Pg 48]
wings are fully developed but before the tissues have
hardened and the muscles in the thorax are strong enough
for flight. At this time the butterfly is perfect, every
scale is in its place and every spot of color is at its best, and
it will rest quietly upon a flower, leaf, or twig while you
adjust the camera and expose the plate. From one
such specimen one can get many pictures upon different
flowers and with different angles of view. (See plates,
pages 160, 225.)

In order to make admirable photographs of living butterflies
it is by no means necessary to have a regular photographic
studio. If one has a room lighted from the north
or east one can arrange for exposure near the window,
using cardboard reflectors to make the light more even
from both sides. In such a situation one soon learns the
exposure periods required and can easily get many beautiful
photographs.

A collection of prints of the butterflies of one's locality
would be one of the most interesting photographic exhibits
that an amateur could select. It is comparatively easy to
get rather full sets showing the life-histories of several of
our larger species and such sets are of course of especial interest.
In the case of those caterpillars which make
nests upon the food plant, like the Painted Beauty larva
which remains for weeks feeding upon the leaves of the
common wild everlasting, the taking of the pictures of
the different stages is comparatively easy. One can
keep the plant with the stem in water, and get the
caterpillar to change to the chrysalis, and emerge as the
butterfly, in the nest made from the flower heads and the
upper leaves.

[Pg 49]

There are few groups in Nature which offer such advantages
to the collector as that of the butterflies. They
are easily obtained, easily preserved, and retain their
beauty for a long period even under exposure to strong
light. They offer opportunities for serious study in
which one cannot only review the facts which others have
already discovered, but also hope to contribute something
of value to the sum of human knowledge.

The mistake most commonly made by beginners with
butterflies, as with other collections, is to undertake too
much. Instead of starting on the hopeless task of making
a collection of the butterflies of the world, it is much better
to start with the intention of making a collection of those
of one's own town. In the latter case one can hope soon
to attain the desired end and then, if one wishes, it is a
simple matter to reach out and make a collection of the
butterflies of the state or even of the particular region in
which the state is located. The natural limitations for a
collection in New England is to make a collection of New
England butterflies. There is a splendid example of such
a collection on exhibition in the museum of the Boston
Society of Natural History. This contains representatives
of practically every kind that has been collected
in New England, and yet there are less than a hundred
species in all. So it is apparent that a local collection
should be attainable by any enthusiastic student and
the very fact that the number of species is limited adds
interest and satisfaction to the pursuit.

The main value of any collection of objects lies in the
point of view of the collector. The most natural point of
[Pg 50]
view for a beginner is that of the local fauna, as indicated
in the previous paragraph. Such a collection best serves
as a basis for a study of the subject but it may well lead
to a broader field through some special phase of scientific
interest. Thus while it would be hopeless for most persons
to attempt a collection of the butterflies of the world
it would be entirely reasonable for one to start a collection
of all the species in the world of any given genus or tribe,
and such a set of specimens would soon come to possess
decided scientific value. Or, instead of the point of
view of generic or family relationship, one could take
the point of view of special geographical distribution.
Thus a collection of all the butterflies found within
a certain number of degrees of the North Pole showing
the circumpolar butterfly fauna would have great scientific
interest.

There are also various other points of view which could
be followed in making a collection. There are already
in many of the museums of the world collections of butterflies
which illustrate the various phases of true mimicry—the
resemblance of one species to another in the same region.
This is a field in which one could spend a lifetime of
endeavor, and secure results of great value to the world
of science. An easier problem for most collectors in the
United States would be a collection made from the point
of view of resemblance to environment, including such
examples as the Angle-wings that show a bark-like set of
marks on the under surface. Yet another point of view
would be that of hibernation, the making of a collection
of all butterflies that hibernate as adults.

These are only a few suggestions. There are many
other phases of butterfly life which could be utilized as the
[Pg 51]
basis for interesting collections. The important thing is
to have a definite object in view and to make the collection
a basis for a real study of the subject, so that the collector
will not only be growing intellectually but will also be
making a real contribution to our scientific knowledge.

To collect and preserve butterflies in proper condition
for study, certain apparatus is necessary. Perhaps the
first essential is the collecting net for catching butterflies
in the field. The simplest way to obtain this is to buy
it of the dealers in entomological supplies. Nets in considerable
variety and at various prices are offered in the
catalogues of these firms. One can make, however, a net
at home with little difficulty. One need only obtain an
iron wire about one fifth of an inch in diameter and bend
it into a circular ring a foot or fifteen inches wide, leaving
the ends projecting at right angles to the circle and having
a blacksmith weld them together so as to form a spur
about four inches long. Now thrust this spur into some
convenient handle, such as a broomstick, and sew over the
wire circle a bag of mosquito netting, Swiss muslin, or some
similar fabric. It is better that this material be green or
black rather than white.

After the butterflies are caught, they must be killed,
so some form of killing bottle is necessary. Most collectors
use a cyanide bottle, in which the fumes of cyanide of
potassium kill the insects. One of the best ways to make
this is to place in a wide-mouthed bottle two or three
lumps of cyanide of potassium, approximately an inch
across. Over this place some fine sawdust and on top of
the sawdust, pour liquid plaster of paris carefully so that
[Pg 52]
it will harden into a layer about half an inch thick.
Allow the plaster to become thoroughly dry, then insert
the stopper into the bottle and it will be ready for use.
It is better to use a ground glass stopper so that the bottle
will always be air tight. The sawdust is often omitted,
the plaster of paris being poured directly over the cyanide.
The special advantage of the sawdust is that it tends to
absorb the cyanide in case it liquefies, as it often does in
damp weather. As this cyanide is a deadly poison, it
is better to let a druggist
prepare the bottle or else
to buy it already prepared
of the dealers in
such supplies.

After the specimens
have been killed in the
cyanide bottle, some
method of keeping them
is necessary. The
simplest way is to preserve
them with their wings closed together in pieces
of paper folded over into triangles as indicated on the
accompanying diagrams. Such specimens may be kept
[Pg 53]
for an indefinite time and if one wishes to mount them
later, it is only necessary to place them for a few
hours in a relaxing jar, which is simply a closed vessel
with enough water in the bottom to saturate the
air with moisture. A great advantage of keeping the
specimens in these paper covers is that they require
so little room and are easily stored away in tin cans
or boxes where they are safe from dust and destroying
enemies.

Those butterflies which are to be preserved in the ordinary
way, in drawers or cabinets, must be spread out and
held in position while the body is drying so that the wings
will remain expanded. For this purpose, some form of a
setting board is necessary. These may be bought of dealers
or made at home. One of the simplest kinds consists
of two thin strips of pine board, a foot or more long,
nailed to end pieces with a space between the two boards
wide enough to accommodate the bodies of the butterflies.
Beneath this open space, a piece of thin cork is
tacked. The pin on which the butterfly is fastened is
pushed through the cork until the wings of the insect
are level with the boards. The wings are then brought
forward with a needle point until they are in the desired
position and they are then held in place by pieces of glass
or by bits of cardboard fastened down by pins. The
butterflies must be left in this position until thoroughly
dry.

Special insect pins should be used for butterflies.
These are longer than common pins and have rounded
heads. They are offered for sale by entomological dealers.
Instead of pinning the insects and preserving them
in cabinets, one may keep them in the Riker mounts,
[Pg 54]
which have the advantage of being sealed so that there is
no chance for dust or museum pests to reach the specimens.
If one wishes to collect extensively, one will need
a considerable number of setting boards and it will be
worth while to prepare for them a special drying box like
that shown in the picture above.

[Pg 55]

The great suborder of butterflies is commonly separated
into two principal groups called superfamilies. One
of these includes all of the higher butterflies and is named
Papilionoidea. The other includes the lower Skipper
butterflies and is named the Hesperioidea. The former
are characterized by small bodies and relatively large
wings, straight clubbed antennae, and the fact that the
caterpillars do not make cocoons when preparing for the
chrysalis state.

The most authoritative classifications of butterfly
families are based upon the peculiarities of wing venation
and are admirably discussed in such books as Holland's
"Butterfly Book" and Comstock's "How to Know the
Butterflies." Without attempting to go into the technical
details of structure it will suffice here to give the list
of families which compose the superfamily Papilionoidea:

It must not be thought that such a list necessarily indicates
the degrees of development of the respective families,
for this is not true. It is simply a linear arrangement
adopted for convenience by leading authorities, notably
Dr. Harrison G. Dyar in his standard "Catalog of American
Lepidoptera."

It is perhaps a bit unfortunate that the group of butterflies,
which is commonly chosen to head the list of
families, is one that is rarely seen by most collectors. The
Parnassians are butterflies of the far north or of high elevations
in the mountains. The four species credited
to North America have been collected in Alaska and the
higher elevations of the Rocky Mountains, so there is very
little probability of any of them being found in the Eastern
states.

While, structurally, these butterflies have a close affinity
with the Swallowtails, one would never suspect it
from their general appearance. Their bodies are large
and all of the wings well rounded, so that there is more of
the suggestion of a large moth than of the Swallowtail.
The coloring is also more moth-like than with most butterflies,
the wings being very light colored and nearly
transparent, with markings of gray and brown, arranged
in dots and splashes.

All our species belong to the genus Parnassius. The
[Pg 57]
caterpillars show their affinity with those of the Swallowtails
by having the curious scent organs or osmateria just
back of the head. They feed upon such alpine plants as
stonecrop and saxifrage and are well adapted by their
structure and habits to the bleak surroundings of the
mountain tops.

As a typical example of the environment in which these
butterflies live, we may take the alpine valleys of such
mountain regions as Pike's Peak. Prof. M. J. Elrod has
described a visit where, at an altitude of 11,500 feet in the
month of August, Parnassius smintheus was flying by
thousands, and the earlier stages were so abundant that
a water ditch had the surface covered as far as one could
see with the dead or dying caterpillars. In such situations,
where ice forms at night, and snow frequently falls
by day, these butterflies develop apparently in greater
numbers than almost any of our other species are known to
do in warmer regions.

This is probably the most distinctive family of all our
familiar butterflies. Its members are characterized by
being on the whole the largest butterflies in our region and
by having the hind wings prolonged into curious tail-like
projections, suggestive of those of a swallow. In general,
the basal color of the wings is blackish though this is commonly
marked in various striking ways with yellow, green,
or blue, while the margins of the wings are commonly
adorned with red or orange spots. These butterflies are
[Pg 58]
also characterized by certain peculiarities in the branching
of the wing veins which will be found pictured in more
technical works.

The caterpillars of these butterflies have the characteristic
form pictured on the plate of the Swallowtails opposite
page 80. When full grown they are large, fairly
smooth-bodied worms, showing at most on the surface
sparse fine hairs or fleshy threadlike projections. Their
most characteristic feature is found in the scent organs
called osmateria situated in the back just behind the head.
These are thrust out, generally, when the caterpillar is
disturbed and appear as orange Y- or V-shaped organs
from which an offensive odor is commonly given off.
They are supposed to serve the purpose of preventing injury
by enemies, possibly birds, monkeys, and other
vertebrates. Structurally, they are like long tubular
pockets that can be turned inside out. When the pocket
is in place it is getting a pocketful of odors. When it is inverted
it lets these odors free. On this account Professor
Comstock has aptly called these caterpillars "the polecats
of the insect world."

When ready to pupate, these Papilio caterpillars spin a
web of silk upon some more or less flattened surface and a
loop of silk near by. They entangle their hind legs in the
former and keep their heads through the latter so the loop
supports the body a little behind the head. Then they
change to chrysalids which are held in place by these sets
of silken threads.

The chrysalids are rather large and angular and generally
take on colors approximating their surroundings.
They vary so much in different species that one familiar
with them can recognize the chrysalis and know the kind
[Pg 59]
of butterfly it will produce.

While the Black Swallowtail is not so large as some other
members of the group, it is probably the best known to
most people. It is found throughout many months of the
year in practically all parts of North America south of
Canada, and has the habit of flying freely about fields and
gardens in search of flowers from which to suck its nectar
food, and of plants on which to deposit its eggs. The female
butterflies have a remarkable ability in selecting only
members of the great family Umbelliferae for this purpose.
In consequence the caterpillars are generally to be found
feeding upon carrots, parsnips, parsley, and various wild species
belonging to this order. (See plates, pages 48 and 64-65.)

The eggs of the Black Swallowtail are laid one in a
place upon the leaves of the food plant. Each egg is a
small, yellowish, smooth, and ovoid object. It may
often be found by watching the butterflies as they fly low
in search of umbelliferous plants, and seeing one stop for a
minute or so while she lays the egg.

About ten days after the egg is laid it hatches into a
small black caterpillar marked in a characteristic fashion
with a blotch of white in the middle of the body which is
suggestive of a saddle. The caterpillar immediately begins
to feed upon the green substance of the leaf, continuing
thus about a week before the first moult. At this
time it does not change much in appearance, still being a
spiny creature blackish in color and marked by the curious
white saddle. A little later it moults again, retaining its
[Pg 60]
original coloring. At each moult, of course, it gets larger
and feeds more freely upon the celery or other plant on
which it may happen to be.

When the caterpillar becomes about half grown it takes
on a very different appearance from that of its early life.
The skin is smooth rather than spiny, and the general
colors are green, black, and yellow. The ground color of
the skin is green, which is marked with black cross-bands
along the middle of each body ring. On these
bands there are many large dots of orange yellow, the
whole coloring giving the insect a very striking appearance,
especially when it is placed by itself against a
plain background. When they finally become full grown
in this larva state, these caterpillars are almost two inches
long.

The larvae of the Black Swallowtail have certain characteristics
in which they differ from many other caterpillars.
After each moult they do not devour their cast
skins, which happens in the case of many of their relatives.
When feeding, as well as when resting, they remain exposed
upon the leaf and seem never to attempt to conceal
themselves, as is the habit with a large proportion of caterpillars.
It is probable that this instinct for remaining exposed
to view bears some relation to the curious means of
protection possessed by this as well as other Swallowtail
caterpillars. When disturbed one of these larvae will push
out from just back of the head the strange-looking, orange-yellow
Y-shaped organ which gives off a very disagreeable
odor. These osmateria organs are generally believed to
be defensive against the attack of birds and various other
enemies, although they seem not to be effective against insect
[Pg 61]
parasites.

The full-grown caterpillars are likely to leave their food
plants when ready to change to the chrysalis state. They
wander in various directions until suitable shelter is found.
A piece of board, a fence post, or possibly the bark of a
tree will answer for this purpose. Here the caterpillar
spins a mat of silk in which to entangle its hind legs and a
short distance away near the front end of the body it
spins a loop of silk attaching the ends to the support.
These serve to hold the chrysalis in place during this helpless
period. After the loop is made the caterpillar keeps
its head through it so that the loop holds the insect in position
a short distance back of the head. It is now ready
to moult its last caterpillar skin and become a chrysalis.

One who has watched hundreds of these caterpillars go
through this change, Miss Mary C. Dickerson, describes
the process in these words: "In this final moult the chrysalis
has to work very hard. The bulk of the body is
again slipped forward in the loosened caterpillar skin, so
that this becomes tensely stretched over the anterior end,
and very much wrinkled at the posterior end. The skin
splits back of the head and is forced back by its own taut
condition and by the efforts of the chrysalis, until only the
extreme posterior end of the chrysalis is within it. Then
the chrysalis withdraws this posterior end with its many
very tiny hooks, from the skin on the dorsal side, and,
reaching around, securely fastens the hooks into the button
of silk. Then the old skin is removed both from its fastening
to the chrysalis and from its attachment in the button
of silk."

A short time after the caterpillar's skin has thus been
cast off the chrysalis takes on a brownish color which as is
[Pg 62]
so often the case is likely to vary somewhat according to
the tint of the surrounding surfaces. This is doubtless a
protective device and helps the insect to escape attack by
birds during the long period of exposure. For this butterfly
passes through the winter only in the chrysalis condition,
and the larva which went into the chrysalis in
September does not come out as a butterfly until the following
May or June. There are, however, two broods of
the butterflies in the North and at least three in the South.
As the adults live for about two months and there is considerable
variation in the periods of their development it
happens that one can find these Black Swallowtail butterflies
upon the wing almost any time in warm weather,
either North or South.

The largest of our North American butterflies is a magnificent
insect with a wing expanse of some four inches and
with a rich coloring of black and yellow more or less suffused
with greenish or bluish iridescence that gives it a
striking beauty as it flies leisurely about from flower to
flower or stops to lay an egg upon some bush or tree. The
tails are long and expanded toward the tip, their prevailing
color being black with a broad splash of yellow near the
end. In a general way we may say that the upper wing
surface is black marked with two bands of orange-yellow,
while the under surface is yellow marked with two bands of
black. (See plate, page 64.)

The Giant Swallowtail is a tropical species which is
[Pg 63]
abundant throughout the Southern states and during recent
years seems to have been gradually extending its
northern range. It is now commonly found as far north
as forty-two degrees latitude, from Nebraska eastward.
In New England it is occasionally taken in Connecticut,
Massachusetts, and even in Maine, but its appearance in
this region is exceptional.

In the orange-growing regions of the Southern states the
caterpillars of this butterfly feed freely upon the leaves of
citrus fruits and they are often called "orange puppies" or
"orange dogs." Probably their curious appearance and
their habit of resting for long periods upon leaf or twig
gave rise to this name. In the region indicated the life-history
of the insect may be summarized thus:

The mother butterfly deposits the eggs singly upon the
young growth of orange or other citrus fruit trees, generally
near the tips of leaves or branches. About a week later
each egg hatches into a caterpillar that feeds upon the
young leaves, resting upon the lower surface when not eating.
After a few days of this feeding the caterpillar becomes
too large for the skin with which it was born and it
moults, coming forth with a new skin which soon hardens
so that it can begin feeding again. A week or so later it
moults for the second time, and continues these processes of
feeding and moulting until full grown, which is perhaps a
month from the time of hatching from the egg. At first
the caterpillars eat only the succulent young leaves and
branches, but as they grow larger they feed more freely
upon the older foliage. They are very voracious and when
abundant may often do much damage especially to young
trees. When ready to change to the chrysalis each caterpillar
attaches itself by silken threads to the bark of the
[Pg 64]
trunk or branch of the tree. Here it changes to a chrysalis
which takes on a color so similar to that of the bark that
the insect is surprisingly difficult to discover. A fortnight
or so later it changes again into a fully developed
butterfly that sallies forth in search of the nectar of
flowers. (See plate, page 240.)

These "orange dogs," like the caterpillars of other Swallowtail
butterflies, have curious yellow scent organs which,
when the caterpillar is disturbed, protrude from the upper
surface just behind the head. These give forth a very disagreeable
odor which is believed to serve the purpose of repelling
birds and possibly other enemies. It has been
noticed that these caterpillars are not molested by birds although
they are attacked by various insect enemies. Each
mother butterfly is known to be able to deposit four or five
hundred eggs and it has been suggested that the injuries of
the caterpillars may be checked by shooting the butterfly
upon the wing with cartridges loaded with small bird shot.
In the South there are several broods in a season.

The life-history of this species in more northern regions
differs in the choice of the food plant and the number of
broods. It feeds upon various members of the rue family,
including common rue and prickly ash, as well as upon
certain poplars and probably other trees. It is two
brooded and apparently winters as a chrysalis. The butterflies
of the first brood come from the chrysalis about the
last of May and are found on the wing during June. Those
of the second brood come from the chrysalis about the last
of July and are found on the wing during August and September.
The length of time required from the laying of the
egg to the emergence of the butterfly varies greatly with
the locality and the temperature. It commonly extends
over a period of four or five weeks.

[Pg 65]

The Blue Swallowtail is said to have closer affinity with
the splendid butterflies of the tropics than most of our
other Papilios. The sheen of metallic color upon its wings
is certainly suggestive of the broad expanse of similar colorings
in the gorgeous butterflies from South America. This
species is easily recognized by the general blackness of the
front wings and the basal parts of the hind ones as seen
from above, about two thirds of the area of the latter being
overlaid with blue-green scales that give the metallic lustre
characteristic of the species. Near the outer border of the
basal half of the front wings there is a row of about five
rather indistinct whitish spots, this row being continued
more distinctly on the hind wings. On the under surface
the white spots of the front wings are more pronounced
than on the upper, while each hind wing is brilliantly
marked with about seven large orange spots, part of them
fringed on one or both sides with a distinct margin of white.
The extreme side borders of all four wings are distinctly
marked with white crescents and the fringes on the tails
as well as more or less of the darker fringes of the hind
wings are of a beautiful purple color. In the males each
hind wing has along the inner border a slender, pocket-like
depression which is said to be the seat of the scent
organs. (See plate, page 65.)

This splendid butterfly is a southern species. It is
found from the Carolinas to California, being at times extremely
[Pg 66]
abundant in certain localities over this great
region. It seldom occurs as far north as New England
and in a general way east of the Rocky Mountains its
northern limit approximates that of forty-three degrees of
latitude. It varies considerably in size and differs greatly
in abundance in different localities and different seasons.

Probably the commonest food plant of the caterpillars
is the Dutchman's Pipe or Aristolochia, which is frequently
planted as an ornamental vine for porch adornment.
It also feeds upon wild ginger or Asarum and
probably upon other plants. A dozen or more eggs are
laid upon a leaf by the mother butterfly, usually in a cluster
or grouped near together. They hatch a week or so
later into small brownish caterpillars which remain together
for awhile in little groups that feed side by side
upon the leaf, beginning at the margin and working toward
the centre. As they become larger they feed more freely
and gradually disperse so that each forages for himself.
As they approach maturity their appetites become voracious
and their presence is often shown by the defoliated
condition of the branches. They have back of the head
the osmateria or scent organs which are commonly found
in the other caterpillars of this genus, but the odor emitted
by them is likely to be less pronounced than usual.

When full grown the caterpillars find such shelter as
[Pg 67]
they may and each spins a bit of silken web and a silken
loop which hold it while it changes to the chrysalis. This
chrysalis is very likely to take on the colors of the immediate
surroundings and thus be rather difficult to see. If the
egg was laid by one of the spring or early summer butterflies,
the chrysalis will soon change to a butterfly which
will appear toward midsummer and which may lay eggs
for another brood of caterpillars. These caterpillars
mature to chrysalids the same season and some of them
are believed to change into butterflies in autumn, these
butterflies hibernating through the winter; while others
are believed to remain unchanged through the winter
and disclose the butterfly the following spring. This is an
exceptional condition for the Swallowtails and it is worth
while to make careful observations along its northern
limits to learn more definitely the facts as to the winter
condition.

This beautiful butterfly is essentially a southern species
and is found over a wide range of territory from the Mississippi
River to the Atlantic Ocean. It occurs as far north
as New Hampshire and Vermont and has even been reported
from Alberta, Canada. It is easily recognized by
the blue-green clouding of the upper surface of the wings,
the general color being velvety black with distinctive
rows of yellow spots along the margins of the front wing.
[Pg 68]
These spots are present also on the hind wing where they
are almost changed to blue because overlaid with a general
cloudiness of this color. On the under surface of the
hind wings there are two rows of orange-brown spots, the
inner row being nearly crescent-shaped and the outer row
oblong. In the living insect the tail projections on the
hind wings are usually twisted into a vertical plane at
right angles to the plane of the wings.

The caterpillars of this species feed upon the leaves of
sassafras and spice bush. The distribution of the butterfly
appears to be closely related to the distribution of
these plants.

As is the case with so many of our Swallowtail butterflies,
the Green-clouded Swallowtail passes through the
winter in the chrysalis stage. Late in spring the butterflies
emerge and soon afterward lay their eggs singly upon
the leaves of sassafras or spice bush. The eggs soon hatch
into lead-colored caterpillars, largely covered with spiny
warts. Each caterpillar cleverly makes a protecting
nest by eating out a narrow strip in the leaf which frees a
flap along the margin that is turned back upon the leaf,
making a case in which the larva lives. It spins a silken
carpet on one side of the case and rests upon this carpet
when at home. During its feeding periods it goes
outside and eats the tissues of the other parts of the same
leaf. It continues to occupy this first nest for a week or
more by which time the rest of the leaf is likely to be
pretty well consumed.

Having passed the first moult and thus become larger
and having practically eaten itself out of its first house
and home the caterpillar now crawls to a larger leaf where
it proceeds to make a more enduring structure. In this
[Pg 69]
case it does not need to bite a channel along one side of the
midrib as it did before, but instead it begins to spin silken
threads transversely across the upper surface in such a way
as to fold over the border of the leaf and make a tubular
chamber in which it has plenty of room to move about.
It uses this as its home for some time thereafter, wandering
out at evening to feed upon neighboring leaves as its
hunger necessitates. In this way it continues to feed and
grow for a week or two. Then it finds it necessary to
construct still another home, which it does by bringing
together the opposite sides of a leaf, taking care to have a
door-like opening at the base of the blade next the leaf
stalk. This third home serves it to the end of its larval
existence. It goes in and out as necessary, remaining concealed
when it casts its skin and until the body tissues
harden afterward. Apparently it devours the cast skin
and thrusts the hard covering of the head out of the nest.
Consequently these little homes are clean and sanitary and
serve admirably their protecting purpose.

The full-grown caterpillars have the curious appearance
of those of the other Swallowtails. The third ring behind
the head is greatly swollen, making, with the rings directly
in front of it, a characteristic picture suggesting a
grotesque face with large eye-like spots at the top. The
general color is green, darker above than below, and there
are six rows of blue dots along the body. (See plate, page 80.)

When ready to change to the chrysalis, the caterpillars
desert their leafy homes and on a twig or board or stone
each spins a bit of silken webbing and a silken loop. They
now change to chrysalids which are likely to resemble the
color of the background and which are somewhat smoother
than many of the Swallowtail chrysalids. About two
[Pg 70]
weeks later the butterflies emerge.

The transformation of a chrysalis into a butterfly is
always one of extraordinary interest. Comparatively
few definite descriptions of this process have been given
by careful observers. One of the best of these is that
written by Mr. Scudder in connection with the emergence
of this butterfly, and it is so accurate and complete that
it seems worth while to quote it at length:

"The butterfly generally emerges from the chrysalis
early in the day," writes Mr. Scudder, "and the first signs
of the immediate change are strong forward and backward
movements of the chrysalis at intervals of a few
seconds; perhaps the third or fourth attempt will be successful,
when a click may be heard at the distance of
several feet; but all the subsequent movements are absolutely
noiseless, though rapid; at intervals of three or four
seconds, spasmodic movements similar to the first carry
on the process; first the split continues along the thorax;
then it runs down either side between the legs and wings,
ultimately to the tips of the antennae. As this progresses,
the actions become more strenuous and more frequently
repeated; with eager efforts the butterfly pushes forward
its half-detached head; now an antenna springs from its
case, at once assuming its natural attitude; the other soon
follows, and then the wings are partially drawn from their
sheaths, and while in this position seem to be used as
levers or arms to aid in withdrawing the rest of the body;
next the legs appear, seize the upper part of the chrysalis
skin, and speedily withdraw the whole body. It is now a
curious-looking object, the wings wrinkled and bloated,
[Pg 71]
and, although the whole process of escape lasts little more
than half a minute, already twice the size of the sheaths
they lately occupied. The insect crawls upward until it
finds a secure resting place, and there remains until ready
for flight; each half of the tongue, drawn independently
from its receptacle, is rolled in a separate spiral, and now
while the wings are gradually expanding the insect applies
all its energies to uniting their two parts, incessantly rolls
and unrolls them, and beginning simultaneously at the
base, gradually fits them together by their interlocking
joints; in about fifteen minutes all but the tips are perfectly
united; these require nearly fifteen minutes more,
and are not fairly interlocked until the wings are fully
expanded, nearly a full half hour after the escape from the
chrysalis; the wings, however, are still tender, and generally
require two hours to stiffen. When at last the insect
ventures upon flight, it is not with an uncertain flutter,
but boldly and steadily, as if long accustomed to the
action."

The butterflies of this second brood of the season are
likely to begin to appear early in August, continuing to become
more abundant throughout that month. These lay
eggs upon the same food plant and the caterpillars grow
to maturity in the same way as those of the first brood.
They become full grown during September or October,
and then change to chrysalids which remain dormant
until the following spring. The species thus has two
broods each year and passes the winter only in the chrysalis
state.

These beautiful butterflies are likely to be found in the
sort of situations where the food plants of the larvae are
growing. Open groves, the borders of woods, and the
margins of streams or marshes are the places where one is
most likely to find spice bush and sassafras. These are
the places to look for these butterflies which one may often
[Pg 72]
see in graceful flight near the ground, pausing now and
then to seek a sassafras leaf or to sip the nectar from a
flower.

One of the many things that make a study of the life-histories
of butterflies of great interest is the variations in
the development of many of the species. One who follows
the simplest life-story of a butterfly and sees the egg
change to larva and the larva change in size and form and
color with each successive moult and then change again
into the seemingly inert chrysalis, from which there finally
comes the winged butterfly—unlike the egg, unlike the
larva, unlike the chrysalis—a creature of perfect beauty,
wonderfully adapted to living freely in the air and sipping
ambrosial nectar from the flowers—one who follows these
changes with awakened vision can scarcely fail to have a
sense of wonder as to the laws that govern such intricate
phenomena. But the marvel is still more pronounced in
the case of those butterflies which have two or more forms
arising from the same lot of eggs in a way which science
has as yet not adequately explained.

The splendid Tiger Swallowtail is an example of this
dimorphism which is of especial interest because of the
fact that the extra form is confined to one sex and to only
a part of the geographical area over which the butterfly is
found. The species occurs over a very large part of the
[Pg 73]
North American continent, being found from ocean to
ocean and from Canada to Florida. In the region north of
approximately the fortieth degree of latitude there is but
one form of the insect—the familiar yellow-and-black
striped butterfly which every one has seen visiting the lilac
blossoms in May or June. South of this, however, part
of the females take on an entirely different appearance,
being almost wholly black with the hind wings touched
with lines of blue and bordered with crescents of yellow
and orange. The curious thing about it is that a certain
mother butterfly may lay a dozen eggs part of which will
develop into the usual yellow form and the rest into the
black form, both lots being of the same sex. This black
form is so entirely distinct in appearance that the two were
originally described as separate species, and they were
long considered such, until breeding experiments determined
the precise condition. (See plate, page 17.)

This species is of interest also for another reason. The
caterpillars during their later life are remarkable examples
of that curious resemblance to the head of a serpent which
is thought to have a real protective value in frightening
away attacking birds and possibly other enemies. The
rings of the body just back of the head are much swollen
and on the top of the swollen part there are two large
circular marks which bear a striking resemblance to eyes.
When the insect is at rest it withdraws its head and holds
up the front of the body in such a way as certainly to suggest
at the first glance that one is looking at the head of a
small snake, an impression which is likely to be enhanced
when the caterpillar pushes out the curious yellow scent
organs from the ring near the top of the head, these
organs taking on the forked appearance of a snake's
[Pg 74]
tongue.

Obviously it is exceedingly difficult to get definite observations
under natural conditions to determine whether
these seeming resemblances are really of value to the caterpillar
in frightening away birds or other enemies. About
the only direct evidence which I have come across upon
this point is found in this paragraph by Dr. J. L. Hancock:

"When I recall the first sight of this larva, the impression
gained of it was a most curious one. The forward
mask-like face was remarkably startling. This mask,
bearing eye-like spots and the light transverse ridge, gave
it an aspect which might easily be mistaken for real eyes
and a mouth. This contrivance is only a false face in no
way connected with the real eyes and mouth. One might
imagine the shock that a bird, or other predaceous enemy,
would experience when looking upon this grinning mask.
This is in reality the effect produced, for I have seen small
birds so alarmed that they lost their appetite and curiosity
for these larvae after a brief glance at them. It is certain
that these singular markings have the effect of terrifying
their bird enemies."[B]

The yearly cycle of the Tiger Swallowtail is much like
that of the related species. It passes the winter as a
chrysalis, the butterflies coming forth just about the time
that the lilacs bloom. They remain upon the wing for a
few weeks and deposit their eggs upon a great variety of
trees and shrubs, for the food plants of the larvae are unusually
varied and include tulip trees, birches, wild cherries,
apples, poplars, ash, and several other common trees or
shrubs. These eggs soon hatch into caterpillars that feed
[Pg 75]
upon the leaves and make for themselves resting places by
spinning a web of silk transversely across the surface of the
leaf. They remain upon these silken webs when not feeding
and in later life are likely to cause the leaf on which the
web is made to curl into a partial tube. When fully developed
they change to chrysalids which give forth the
summer brood of butterflies in July and August. These in
turn lay eggs for the caterpillars which change to chrysalids
in autumn and remain in that condition until the following
spring.

Were one enough of a magician to make one butterfly
over into another it would be comparatively easy to take a
Black Swallowtail and transform it into this species. One
would only need to trim off the long tails so that they
project very slightly from the angles of the hind wings and
to change the yellow spots to orange. He would thus
accomplish what Nature through the long ages seems to
have accomplished in a limited northern area in Newfoundland
and around the Gulf of St. Lawrence, for the
Short-tailed Papilio is confined chiefly to this region, where
it lives a life very similar to that of the Black Swallowtail.
The caterpillar feeds upon the leaves of various members
of the parsley family and is said to have learned to warm
itself during the middle of the day by resting upon stones
and gravel which have absorbed the sun's heat rays.
Presumably there is but one brood a year and the insect
hibernates as a chrysalis.

[Pg 76]

If the magician who had succeeded in converting a Black
Swallowtail into the Short-tailed Papilio wished to try his
hand on making a Palamedes Swallowtail he could not do
better than to use again the same black butterfly. He
would only need to make it about one half larger, retaining
practically all its color markings and the outline of its
wings and tail. For this species bears a remarkable resemblance
to the Black Swallowtail, seeming to be a giant
variety induced by the warmth of the southern climate
where it lives, and possibly by the more generous supply
of the magnolia and sassafras leaves upon which the caterpillars
feed.

This species is distinctly a southern form occurring as
far west as the Mississippi River throughout the more
Southern states. As one would expect in the long seasons
and warm climate of this region there are several broods
each year and the caterpillars often hibernate as well as the
chrysalids. The adult butterflies are lovers of the sun and
are said to roost at night upon the tops of live oak and
palmetto trees.

Most of our Swallowtail butterflies are so distinctive in
form and colors that they are easily distinguished from one
another, but the Zebra species is so different from all the
rest that when it is once seen it is likely always to be remembered.
[Pg 77]
The striking combination of green and black
stripes with very long tails, set off by beautiful crescents of
blue and of red, at once distinguishes this fine butterfly in
any of its varying forms.

Three distinct forms of this species occur, namely:

Marcellus, the early spring form, small in size with short
tails, that show white only on the tips;

Telamonides, the late spring form, somewhat larger,
with tails a little longer and showing more white on the
outer half;

Ajax, the summer form, decidedly larger with tails very
long.

It would be a comparatively simple matter to understand
these forms if they were simply seasonal variations,
with three broods, each form succeeding the other as the
season advances. But this is far from being the case.
We have instead the most complicated and confusing
series of conditions imaginable—conditions for which no
one has yet given satisfactory explanations.

To make a fairly clear statement of what happens, suppose
we assume that we start with twenty over-wintering
chrysalids. In April ten of these disclose their butterflies
which are Marcellus, the early spring form. In May the
other ten disclose their butterflies which are Telamonides,
the late spring form. We thus have these two forms, appearing
successively in spring from the same set of over-wintering
chrysalids.

After flying about for a short time the Marcellus or
early spring Swallowtails lay eggs upon the leaves of papaw
trees or bushes. These eggs soon hatch into caterpillars
that feed upon the leaves and grow rather rapidly.
A little more than a month later they mature into butterflies
[Pg 78]
which are Ajax, the summer form.

In a similar way the Telamonides or late spring butterflies
lay eggs soon after they appear, also upon papaw
leaves, and these eggs in about a month mature into Ajax,
the summer form.

So we have Ajax, the summer form, developing directly
from both the early spring or Marcellus and the late spring
or Telamonides butterflies.

These Ajax butterflies in their turn lay eggs for caterpillar
young. These soon mature into a brood of butterflies
which are of this same Ajax form. There may be
successive broods through the summer, practically all of
them being this same Ajax summer form.

The last brood of caterpillars, however, change to
chrysalids which do not disclose the butterflies until the
following spring. And then the first that come out are the
Marcellus form and the last the Telamonides form. So we
may have these two forms maturing from the same brood
of autumn caterpillars.

This seems a sufficiently complicated life-history to suit
the most persistent solver of puzzle problems, but there is
an additional factor which adds much to the possible confusion
of the broods. In each brood of caterpillars from
the earliest to the latest there are a certain number of
chrysalids which remain dormant through the remainder
of the season and the following winter, maturing into
butterflies the next spring. Consequently at the end of
every winter there are a miscellaneous lot of chrysalids
which represent every brood of caterpillars that lived the
previous season, and all of these develop into either Marcellus
or Telamonides butterflies.

Such a condition of affairs certainly represents what an
[Pg 79]
old New Englander would be likely to call a "mixed-up
mess," and it is difficult for science to find rhyme or reason
to explain it. It speaks eloquently for the perseverance of
W. H. Edwards that he was able with infinite patience
through years of study and experiment to untangle this intricate
web of butterfly existence.

While the preferred food plant of this species is papaw,
the caterpillars are also known to feed upon the spice bush
and upland huckleberry. When full grown these caterpillars
are about two inches long and of a general pea-green
color, banded transversely with yellow and black, and having
an especially conspicuous band of this sort on the third
ring behind the head. The scent organs are protruded
when the larva is disturbed and emit an offensive odor.
The chrysalids are green or brown according to the surroundings.

The Zebra Swallowtail is a southern butterfly found as
far west as Texas and the Rocky Mountains and having its
northern limits in a zone ranging approximately from
Massachusetts to Nebraska. It is especially abundant in
the Southern states east of the Mississippi River.

Mr. S. F. Denton found this species abundant in southern
Ohio where the females laid their eggs upon the small
papaw bushes. They selected the leaves of these bushes
for sleeping quarters, "clinging to the under side of the
leaves where early in the morning they might be taken
with the fingers."

Several other Swallowtail butterflies are found within
the limits of the United States, especially in the Far West
and along the southern boundaries. Some of these occasionally
[Pg 80]
migrate east or north so that they are collected in
the Central states. Thus Papilio daunus, P. oregonia,
and P. zolicoan are all found in the "List of Nebraska
Butterflies," published by Mr. H. G. Barber, and the same
species have been taken in other states in or near the
Mississippi Valley. These and various others are described
and pictured in Dr. Holland's excellent "Butterfly Book."

Tiger Swallowtail: Yellow form (Papilio glaucus turnus).
Expanse 3½ to 5 inches. Upper surface of wings bright
yellow with each black margin marked with a row of yellow
spots. Both sexes throughout its range. Black form
(Papilio glaucus glaucus). Black all over with blue markings
on outer half of hind wings and row of straw-yellow
crescents on borders of same. Females only, and only
south of about latitude 40 degrees.

Giant Swallowtail (Papilio thoas or Papilio cresphontes).
Expanse 4 to 5½ inches. Upper surface black with two
bands of yellow starting at the inner margin of the hind
wings and coming together as a row of yellow spots at the
outer angles of each front wing. A yellow spot on each
black tail. Under surface yellow.

Zebra Swallowtail. Expanse 3 to 3½ inches. Easily
known by the stripes of green upon black and the long,
slender tails. The different forms vary in size and in the
length of the tails. Scientific names are: Early Spring
Form, Iphiclides ajax marcellus; Late Spring Form, I.
ajax telamonides; Summer Form, I. ajax ajax.

Green-clouded Swallowtail (Papilio troilus). Expanse
[Pg 81]
3½ to 4 inches. Black with about seven yellowish spots
on outer margin of each front wing and eight marginal
spots on each hind wing, those at the ends of row orange,
the rest yellowish or bluish. Outer half of hind wings
clouded with greenish blue. Under surface black with
two distinct rows of yellowish spots on front wings and
two rows of orange spots on hind wings.

Blue Swallowtail (Laertias philenor, often called Papilio
philenor). Expanse about 4 inches. Black or brownish
black with most of hind wings showing a bluish green iridescence.
A row of marginal spots on each hind wing,
more or less distinct on the front wings. Outer fringe with
broad white markings interrupted by black ones. Under
surface of each hind wing with seven large orange spots,
some with partial borders of white.

Black Swallowtail (Papilio polyxenes or Papilio asterias).
Expanse about 3 inches. Black with two conspicuous
rows of yellow spots on outer half of wings, more distinct
in males. On hind wings rows of blue spots or
splashes between the yellow ones. Orange-red circle with
black centre at inner angle of each hind wing. Under
surface with markings more distinct and more orange-yellow.

Short-tailed Swallowtail (Papilio brevicauda). Much
like the Black Swallowtail but generally smaller, with very
short tails, and with the yellow markings more or less
changed to orange. Confined to the limited region of
Newfoundland and the lands bordering the Gulf of the St.
Lawrence.

Palamedes Swallowtail (Papilio palamedes). Expanse
4 to 4½ inches. Much like the Black Swallowtail but considerably
larger. A curved yellow line on the head back of
each eye. Found only in the South.

[Pg 82]

The most familiar and abundant American butterflies
are classified together under the family name Pieridae,
or the Pierids. Three groups or tribes of them are popularly
known as the Whites, the Orange-tips, and the
Yellows. Our two commonest butterflies, the White or
Imported Cabbage Butterfly and the Sulphur Yellow
Butterfly, are typical representatives of this family.
Most of the rest, like these, are of moderate size with
rounded wings which are more or less marked with
black. There are six well-developed legs and the caterpillars
of practically all the species are cylindrical
greenish worms which under a lens are seen to be
covered with short hairs. When the caterpillars are
ready to change to chrysalids they spin a web of silk
upon the supporting surface and just back of it, a loop
of silk that serves to hold the chrysalis in place and
keep it from swaying back and forth. The chrysalids are
characterized by having a pointed projection on the front
of the head, the rest of the body being more or less
angular.

Notwithstanding their close general resemblance to
their food plants, the caterpillars of this family suffer from
attack by various enemies. Birds find many of them, not
only eating them themselves but also using them freely
for feeding the nestlings. Parasitic insects also take a
heavy toll from these caterpillars. This attack of enemies
is doubtless a chief reason why many of the common species
are not much more destructive.

[Pg 83]

Three white butterflies of approximately the same size
are found widely distributed over the United States.
The most abundant species is the White or Imported Cabbage
butterfly. The next in abundance is probably the
Checkered White, and the rarest in most localities is the
Gray-veined White which is a northern form.

There is probably no butterfly which one can generally
find so easily in its early stages as the White or Imported
Cabbage butterfly which is found practically wherever
cabbages are grown and is generally so abundant that
caterpillars and chrysalids are readily discovered. In the
Northern states the insect passes through the winter
within the chrysalis, coming forth rather early in spring
as the familiar white butterfly with black dots upon the
wings and blackish front angles of the fore wings. (See
plates, pages 64-65 and 81.)

The butterflies that thus appear in spring flit freely
about over fields, meadows, and gardens, sipping the nectar
of various early flowers through their long, coiled
tongues and stopping occasionally to alight upon the leaf
of a cabbage or other plant of the mustard family to deposit
the small, pale yellow eggs which remain attached
by a sort of glue. The adult butterflies continue their
leisurely life for a fortnight or more, thus extending the
[Pg 84]
laying of the eggs over a considerable period.

About a week after being deposited the egg hatches into
a tiny green caterpillar that begins feeding upon the tender
surface of the cabbage leaf. It is commonly called
the cabbage worm and it is doubtless the most generally
destructive insect affecting this crop. It continues to
feed for several days before the first moult, after which it
becomes decidedly larger and begins to eat again more
voraciously than before. It undergoes several successive
moults during the next two or three weeks before it becomes
full grown as a caterpillar. Unlike most butterfly
larvae it has changed very little in its general appearance
during its growth. It is always of a pale green color,
strikingly like the glaucous green of the cabbage leaf, a
fact which doubtless helps to conceal it from the eager
eyes of birds and other animals.

When the caterpillar is thus full fed it is likely to leave
its food plant and find shelter elsewhere. Sometimes it
will stop on the lower surface of the outer leaves, but more
commonly it will find a piece of board, an overhanging
stone, a fence-post, or the side of a building, where it will
prepare for the change to the chrysalis. It will do this
by spinning a silken thread upon the surface in which to
entangle its hind legs and a loop of silk near by with which
to hold its body. When these preparations are completed
the insect will cast its last caterpillar skin, emerging as a
grayish or brownish chrysalis, the color usually varying
with the color of the surrounding surface.

A week or more later the chrysalis skin bursts open and
the white butterfly emerges to expand and dry its wings
[Pg 85]
before it flies away for its leisurely life. There are two
or more broods each season, the number varying with the
latitude. There is a decided variation in the length of
time required for the completion of the cycle from egg to
butterfly. In hot weather the insect may mature in
about three weeks while in cooler weather it may require
as much as five weeks.

While it is well known that a large proportion of our
most destructive insects have been imported from Europe,
it is only in comparatively few cases that man has been
able to make careful records of the times and places where
the insects were introduced and to follow the spread of the
pest from these original centres. The Imported Cabbage
butterfly is one of the few species of which this is true.
This insect has been known for centuries in Europe, where
it feeds freely upon the leaves of cabbages and turnips.
So far as known it was first introduced into North America
about 1860, when it appeared in Quebec. Eight years
later it was again introduced into the region of New York
City. From these two points the insect spread gradually
in various directions until in 1871 it covered the whole of
New England and various parts of New York and New
Jersey. From then on it spread even more rapidly and
was evidently accidentally introduced into various parts
of the country which became new centres of distribution.
Of course it would be very easy for this to happen through
the shipment of cabbages from one part of the country to
another. Within thirty years of the time of its first introduction
it had become a serious pest over practically
[Pg 86]
all the United States and Canada.

The introduction and spread of such a pest is of interest
in itself, but in this case there is to be noted the additional
fact that the presence of this foreigner has practically
led to the extinction of two native species of butterflies,
both closely related to each other and to the invader
and both feeding upon the same plants. An almost
pure white butterfly—the Gray-veined White—was formerly
exceedingly abundant in many of the Northern states,
while farther south there was another species, the Checkered
White, which was also abundant. Both of these
have now so completely disappeared that in some localities
they are almost never seen, while their imported relative
has become perhaps the most abundant of all American
butterflies.

One would naturally suppose that when a butterfly
was reduced to the greatest possible simplicity in its coloring
there would be little chance for the development of
geographical or seasonal varieties. But he would only
have to study a large collection of specimens of this species,
taken at different seasons and in different regions, to
find his supposition at fault. Here is a butterfly which
is essentially a slender black-bodied creature with four
white wings scarcely touched with color, and yet we are
told that there are eleven varieties in the United States so
distinct that they have received scientific names, not to
mention various others which have been found in Europe.
[Pg 87]
This is indeed a remarkable showing and it is a striking
illustration of the infinite variations which Nature can
produce with the most limited materials.

To me the seasonal variations of a butterfly are always
of greater interest than those which are geographical.
We know that in the case of a great many animals, from
insects to mammals, the different conditions of climate
and physical environment found in different regions produce
variations of many sorts. So it does not seem especially
strange that in Alaska there should be a different
form of a certain butterfly than is found in Virginia. But
that in the same locality there should be two or more
forms of a butterfly existing under identical conditions as
to climate and environment is not so easily explained. In
the case of the Gray-veined White we collect in early
spring in New England, or other Northern states, a lot of
chrysalids. We keep them until the butterflies come
forth and we find even here two distinct forms, one smaller
and more delicate than the other, with both surfaces of
the wings pure white: scientists call this form, virginiensis;
the other larger with the under surface of the wings slightly
tinted with yellow: scientists call this form oleracea.
The first named has but one brood a year while the
second lays eggs which develop into caterpillars that
produce butterflies of still a third form, in which the
upper surface of the wings is pure white with a slightly
greater expanse: scientists call this form cruciferarum.
These three varieties occur in Eastern regions and may
be found in the same localities, and differ considerably
from various geographical varieties found in the Far
West.

The caterpillar of the Gray-veined White is a bit smaller
[Pg 88]
than those of the nearly related forms, and in color is
green with no distinct longitudinal markings, but with
many fine dots of black over the surface. The cylindrical
body is covered with a fine down. When feeding upon
cabbage it is more likely to attack the outer than the inner
leaves, and so even when abundant it is less troublesome
to gardeners than the imported species. It is now, however,
so rare that it seems to feed chiefly upon wild cruciferous
plants and is more likely to be found along the
borders of open woods than in gardens and fields. The
winter is passed in the chrysalis state.

Some years ago the Checkered White was commonly
called the Southern Cabbage Butterfly but the general
distribution of the imported species has had the same effect
upon its abundance in the South that it has had upon
the Gray-veined White in the North. Consequently, it
is now much less abundant than formerly, even in the
Southern states where it is most at home. There are two
fairly distinct forms: the spring form and the summer form.
The latter is practically of the same size as the Imported
Cabbage Butterfly: the males have the hind wings nearly
white above and the fore wings with a few black dots or
spots upon their outer halves. The females are much
more definitely marked, having the upper surface of both
pairs of wings marked in black or brownish black in such a
way as to enclose a large number of white diamonds. The
spring form is decidedly smaller and the markings are
[Pg 89]
much less distinct than in the summer form.

The seasonal history of this species is comparatively
simple. In winter the chrysalids are found. From these
chrysalids in early spring the small butterflies of the spring
form come forth. These lay eggs upon various cruciferous
plants which hatch into greenish caterpillars that eat
the leaves and soon mature so far as their caterpillar stage
is concerned. They are then about an inch long, with
downy cylindric bodies more or less marked with rather
pale yellow stripes, touched here and there with purplish
green or dotted slightly with fine black dots. These caterpillars
now attach themselves by means of a button of silk
and a silken loop to some support like a piece of board, the
side of a stone, or almost any available shelter. Each
casts its larval skin and appears as a grayish chrysalis
from which probably a fortnight later the summer form
of the butterfly emerges. There are commonly two
broods of this summer form, making three sets of butterflies
for the entire season. The caterpillars of the second
summer brood of butterflies go into the chrysalis stage in
autumn to remain throughout the winter.

Some very interesting observations upon the sleeping
habits of this butterfly have been made in St. Louis by
Mr. and Mrs. Phil Rau. The insects were found abundantly
resting upon the seed heads of white snakeroot.
Early in October, when a warm south wind was blowing,
the great majority of the butterflies slept horizontally
with their heads toward the wind. At other seasons and
in other places, many of them were found in a vertical
position but practically all had their bodies toward the
wind prevailing at the time. The observers were unable
[Pg 90]
to ascertain definitely whether the insects thus oriented
themselves at the time of alighting, so that their wings
presented the least resistance to the force of the wind, or
whether this was a mechanical result of the breezes.

There used to be in the Northern states before the advent
of the Imported Cabbage butterfly a familiar white
butterfly which then laid its eggs upon cabbages in much
the same way that the imported pest now does. One who
has seen this northern Gray-veined White and then sees
the Great Southern White will be likely to think of the
latter as a larger edition of the former, for in the males of
the southern species the wings are practically white save
for a narrow dusky border at the outer angle of the front
pair, although in the female this dusky margin is wider
and the hind wings show a series of dusky triangles near
the margin. There is also a curious black marking
suggestive of a crescent on each front wing near the
middle of the front border, which helps to make the
appearance of this butterfly very distinct from that of any
other.

Although this species is at times so abundant that it
swarms in great flocks and although it has been known for
many years, its life-history seems not to have been carefully
worked out since it was first described by Abbott
more than a century ago. The caterpillars feed upon
cruciferous plants and when full grown are about an inch
and a half long, of a general yellow color, more or less
striped with purple lines. The species is distinctly tropical
[Pg 91]
extending northward into our Southern states.

Dr. G. B. Longstaff reports this species as abundant in
Jamaica where he found that the clubs of the antennae of
the living insects showed a beautiful turquoise blue color,
although another observer described them as bright green
with a tinge of blue. This is an interesting color variation
for a member of this group. In the tropics also there are
two forms, one belonging to the dry season and one to the
wet season.

Imported Cabbage Butterfly (Pieris rapae). Expanse 2
inches. Upper surface white with a black marginal dash
on the front outer angle of the front wing. One round
black spot on each of the four wings in the male. Two
round spots on each of the front wings in the female and
one round spot on each of the hind wings. Under surface
of hind wings yellowish white; spots on front wings in same
position as on upper surface. A spring form (immaculata)
is smaller and the black spots are almost obsolete.

Gray-veined White (Pieris napi). Expanse 2 inches.
Upper surface white with only a darker marginal splash
next the body. Under surface white with gray veins.

Checkered White (Pontia protodice or Pieris protodice).
Expanse 2 inches. Upper surface white, strongly marked
especially in the female with dark grayish brown on both
pairs of wings. Along the outer margins these marks are
so arranged as to enclose white diamond spots. Male
with front wings only lightly marked and hind wings
scarcely marked at all. Under surface much like upper,
with a slight yellowish tinge in female.

Great Southern White (Pontia monuste or Pieris phileta.)
[Pg 92]
Expanse 2½ inches. General color white with a narrow
black margin around apical angle of front wings.
These margins are wider in the female, in which sex there
is a series of marginal spots on the hind wings. Easily
known by its large size.

When one sees a gossamer-winged butterfly flitting from
flower to flower on a bright June day it seems one of the
most ethereal of earth's visions. One could readily fancy
that the whole sight—flowers, butterflies, and all—might
easily vanish into thin air. So it is something of a shock
to hear scientists talk about fossil butterflies and to realize
that these fragile creatures have been living generation
after generation for untold millions of years. A realization
of this fact, however, helps us to understand the
many wonderful ways in which butterflies in all stages of
their existence have become adapted to the conditions of
their lives.

There is perhaps no group of butterflies whose beauty
seems more fragile than that of the Orange-tips. These
are delicate creatures, with slender bodies and almost
gauzy wings, of a size somewhat smaller than our common
white and yellow butterflies. Perhaps the most remarkable
feature is the marking of the wings, the upper sides of
the front pair having an orange patch near the apex and
the under sides having a background of delicate whitish or
yellowish green, lined and spotted with darker coloring
in a very characteristic way. This peculiar marking is so
significant that it has been called "flower picturing."
[Pg 93]
To understand the reason for its existence one has only to
watch the butterflies in their native haunts. He will
find them flitting from blossom to blossom among the
plants of the mustard family—the Cruciferae. This is
one of the most characteristic families in the plant world:
the foliage for the most part is small and delicate and the
flowers have a characteristic four-petaled structure, being
practically always of small size and generally toned in
whites or yellows. When an Orange-tip is at rest upon
these blossoms it merges so completely into the background
that it disappears from view. Should a bird chase
one of these insects through the air it would see chiefly
the orange tips which are so marked upon the upper
side of the wing, and when the butterfly closed its
wings and lighted among the flowers the orange color
would instantly disappear and there would be only an
almost invisible surface against the background of flower
and leaf.

The adaptations of these Orange-tips to the conditions of
their lives are by no means confined to this remarkable resemblance
to the flowery background. In the case of some
species the whole yearly cycle has been adapted to correspond
to the yearly history of the cruciferous food plant.
As is well known many species of the mustard family spring
up early in the season, put forth their blossoms which
quickly develop into fruits and then die down, the species
being carried through until the next year by the dormant
seeds. In a similar way the Orange-tips feed as caterpillars
upon the host plant through the spring, completing
their growth before the plant dies and then changing
to chrysalids which remain dormant through summer,
fall, and winter and come forth as butterflies early the following
[Pg 94]
spring. The insect has thus adapted itself in a
most remarkable manner to the yearly history of its plant
host.

The Falcate Orange-tip is about the only member of
this tribe generally distributed east of the Rocky Mountains.
This is a beautiful insect which is sparingly found
even as far north as New England. It is more abundant
throughout the Southern states, occurring south at least as
far as Texas. It appears to be a good illustration of the
adaptation of its development to that of its food plants.
The eggs are laid upon leaves or stems of such spring-flowering
Cruciferae as rock cress (Arabis), and hedge
mustard (Sisymbrium). On hatching the caterpillars feed
upon stems, leaves, flowers, and even seed pods of these
plants, becoming mature in a few weeks and
changing to chrysalids under the protection
of such shelter as they can find. In the
Northern states these chrysalids remain unchanged
until the following spring when the
butterflies emerge and are found upon the
wing for a few weeks in May and early June.
In some southern regions at least the species
is evidently double-brooded, as Dr. Holland
reports that he has taken the butterflies in late autumn in
the western portion of North Carolina.

This Falcate Orange-tip is one of the daintiest and most
exquisite of northern butterflies. It is a prize which any
collector will find joy in possessing. It is easily recognized
[Pg 95]
by its general white color, which in the female is relieved
only by a distinct black mark on the upper surface of the
front wings and a row of marginal markings upon all the
wings. The male is slightly smaller and is at once known
by the orange blotch on the outer angle of the upper
surface of the front wing. This outer angle projects
into a distinct point which gives the species its name
Falcate. (See plate, page 256.)

Dr. J. L. Hancock has described in a most interesting
manner the way in which this Orange-tip loses itself among
the flowers of rock cress. In northern Indiana he found
this butterfly abundant in April at the time of the blossoming
of Arabis lyrata. The butterflies would be flying
about, easily seen in the air. Then they would suddenly
disappear and could be found only after the most careful
search. They had simply lit upon the flower heads, when
the flower picturing of the under surface of the wings
blended perfectly with the appearance of the clustered
flower.

"The green markings of the under side of the wing,"
writes Dr. Hancock, "are so arranged as to divide the
ground color into patches of white, which blend with or
simulate perfectly the petals of the clustered flowers.
The eyes of the butterfly are delicate pale green and the
antennae are whitish, all of which adds to the effectiveness
of the blend. The flowers of Arabis have white petals
with the centre yellowish green, as is also the calyx. There
is a shade of pink outside the base of the petals. All in all,
the adaptation of insect to flower here displayed is one of
rare exquisiteness."[C]

Dr. Hancock found that the butterflies were able to
[Pg 96]
cling on the flowers during strong winds very persistently,
so that even when a storm blew across the sand dunes they
were likely to remain in position. They also have the instinct
to rest very quietly after they have lit upon the
clustered flower heads.

In various parts of the Southern states there is at least
one other Orange-tip butterfly which is found occasionally
in connection with the Falcate Orange-tip. It was named
Olympia many years ago by William H. Edwards. It is a
delicate white species marked with black and yellow very
lightly both above and below, the yellow showing only on
the under side of the hind wings and that part of the front
wing which is exposed when the insect is at rest. Strictly
speaking, this is not an Orange-tip because the orange
color is lacking in both sexes.

This is rather a rare species which occurs occasionally
from the Atlantic states to the Great Plains south of a
line drawn from northern Maryland to northern Missouri.
Like its allies the larvae feed upon various cruciferous plants,
the hedge mustard being one of these and the adults visit the
flowers of the same family. They doubtless have habits
similar to those of the Falcate Orange-tip, and the extreme
delicacy of color must render them practically invisible
when resting upon the small white flowers of most crucifers.

Most of the Orange-tip butterflies are found on the
Pacific Slope, ranging from Alaska southward, several of
them being especially abundant in the western mountain
regions. About eight species are recognized as belonging
to our fauna, some of which have several well-marked
varieties.

[Pg 97]

Falcate Orange-tip (Synchloe genutia, Anthocaris genutia
or Euchloe genutia). Expanse 1²⁄₅ inches. Tips of
front wings projecting in a hooked angle. Orange
blotch on upper surface near tip in male, absent in
female.

Olympian Orange-tip (Synchloe olympia, Euchloe olympia
or Anthocaris olympia). Expanse 1½ inches. Wings white
above in both sexes with greenish black markings at base
of all wings and along front margin of front wings, especially
at apex. No orange patch.

A large proportion of our most abundant and conspicuous
butterflies belong to the Tribe of the Yellows. Sometimes
it is called the Tribe of the Red-horns because the
antennae of the living insects are so often red. These insects
vary in size from the large Brimstones or Cloudless
Sulphurs, expanding three inches, to the delicate little
Dainty Sulphur, expanding scarcely an inch. The distinctive
characteristics of the tribe are found in the very
gradual enlargement of the joints of the antennae that
form the club, and the stout palpi, the last joints of each of
the latter being short.

[Pg 98]

Practically all northern butterflies are variously marked
in different colors, while the butterflies of tropical regions
are commonly tinted in monotone, though often showing a
splendid iridescence. One with very little experience can
tell the look of a tropical butterfly and would be likely to
say at once that the Cloudless Sulphur is one of these.
The upper surface of the wings of the male is a clear plain
sulphur with merely the narrowest possible fringe of brown
around the margin made only by the colored marginal
scales. The under surface is lighter and sparsely dotted
in brown. In the females the marginal brown takes on the
shape of a series of small crescents and there is a single
round brown eye-spot just in front of the middle of each
front wing.

While the Cloudless Sulphur is without doubt essentially
a tropical species it has an extraordinary geographical
range. It is extremely abundant in Mexico, Cuba, and the
tropical zone in South America. It extends south even to
northern Patagonia and north to New England, Wisconsin,
and Nebraska.

Presumably in the tropics this species breeds continuously,
one generation following another in regular succession
unless interrupted by drought or other natural
phenomena. In our Southern states there is more or less
interruption by the winter season, so that it is commonly
considered to have only two broods, the butterflies hibernating.
Farther north there is probably only one brood in
summer, and perhaps not even that in the extreme limit
of its range. For there is pretty good evidence that the
[Pg 99]
specimens seen in the Northern states are migrants from
the south, coming singly or in scattered flocks in early
summer, and if they lay eggs the butterflies of the new
generation return south in autumn. But the precise conditions
are not well known and need careful observations
in various localities.

The life-story of a generation of these butterflies is much
like that of the other Yellows. The eggs are laid, one in a
place, on the leaflets of various species of wild senna
(Cassia) and soon hatch into cylindrical caterpillars that
devour the tender leaflets. In a few weeks the caterpillars
mature and change to curious and characteristic
chrysalids. The head projects in the shape of a cone and
the back is so concave as to give the side view of the chrysalis
a very striking appearance.

Like so many of the Yellows this butterfly is sun-loving
and social in its habits. Great numbers flock together,
their large size and bright coloring rendering them very
conspicuous. They often alight on the ground to sip
moisture when they have been likened to beds of yellow
crocuses. They also fly long distances in flocks that attract
much attention. It is likely that the northward distribution
takes place in summer through such migrating
hosts.

The Large Orange Sulphur is a closely related butterfly
of about the same size, in which the coloring is uniformly
orange-yellow instead of lemon-yellow. It also belongs
to the tropics, occurring in our extreme Southern
states and ranging occasionally as far north as Nebraska.

The Red-barred Sulphur is another splendid butterfly,
[Pg 100]
somewhat larger than the Brimstone, which is easily distinguished
by the broad reddish bar across the upper surface
of the front wings. It is tropical but migrates rarely
even as far north as Indiana, Illinois, and Wisconsin.

The Dog's-head butterfly furnishes one of the most remarkable
examples of accidental resemblance in wing
markings that can be found in the whole order of scale-winged
insects. It is comparable with the skull and crossbones
on the back of the death's-head moth. In the
butterfly the middle of the front wings has a broad band of
yellow against a black margin on each side and the yellow
outlines make an excellent silhouette of the profile of a
poodle with a large black eye-spot in exactly the proper
place. The females are less brightly colored than the
males but they still show the dog's-head silhouette.

This is a southern species, which occasionally strays
as far north as New York City, New Hampshire, Wisconsin,
and Iowa. The larvae feed on species of Amorpha
and are believed to be three-brooded in southern regions
where the butterfly occurs.

The California Dog's-head is even more beautiful
than the southern species. It is remarkable for its pink
and purple iridescence—a characteristic which is not common
in the butterflies of the Yellow and the White Tribes.
The silhouette of the Dog's-head is less perfect than in
the more eastern species, and the yellow color tones are
more tinged with orange. The female is strikingly different,
[Pg 101]
the wings being plain pale yellowish buff marked
only with a round blackish eye-spot near the middle of
each front wing and the barest suggestion of a dark line
around the extreme margin.

It is an interesting fact that the butterfly which one is
most likely to find in fields and along roadsides during
practically all the weeks of summer has seldom if ever been
noted as a destructive insect. The Clouded Sulphur
is probably the commonest species in its group. There
may be times when the White Cabbage butterfly or other
forms are more abundant, but the Clouded Sulphur retains
its place season after season, with comparatively
little noticeable variation in its numbers. This is doubtless
an illustration of an insect which has established such
relations with its food plants and its various insect and
other enemies that it remains in a fairly stable equilibrium—an
example of what is often called the balance of
nature.

The Clouded Sulphur is about the only medium-sized
yellow butterfly generally found in the Northeastern
states. The adults may be seen from spring
until autumn. They lay eggs upon clover and other
plants. These eggs hatch into small green caterpillars
that feed upon the leaves and are protectively colored
so they are comparatively seldom seen. When
the food plant is disturbed they drop to the ground,
crawling up again upon stems and leaves when the disturbance
[Pg 102]
is over.

These caterpillars moult several times during their
growth. When full grown they find such shelter as they
are able and each spins a silken web over part of the surface.
It then fastens its hind legs into this web and later
spins a loop near the front end of the body. It pushes itself
beneath this loop and waits for several hours before
the skin breaks open along the back and is gradually
shuffled off revealing the chrysalis in position. A week or
two later the fully developed butterfly emerges from the
chrysalis.

These yellow butterflies lend a distinctive charm to our
summer landscapes. They are constantly to be seen
fluttering from place to place, lightly visiting flowers of
many kinds from which they suck the nectar, and gathering
in great colonies by roadside pools where they seem to
sip the moisture. There are many references to this insect
in the writings of New England authors. It evidently
was an especial favorite of James Russell Lowell who has
often referred to it in passages like this:

"Those old days when the balancing of a yellow butterfly
over a thistle bloom was spiritual food and lodging for a
whole forenoon."

Were one able to take a Clouded Sulphur butterfly
and change the yellow to a deep orange color he could
easily make a specimen that would pass for the present
species. The resemblance is very remarkable and shows
[Pg 103]
the close affinity between these two beautiful insects.

Like so many others of this group the Orange Sulphur
is essentially a tropical species. In the eastern United
States it is rarely found north of latitude forty degrees,
but south of that it becomes increasingly abundant as
one approaches the tropics. It occurs from the Carolinas
to Texas, and over the great range in which it lives it takes
on many different forms and habits. It is one of the most
remarkable examples of variation in coloring exhibited by
any of the butterflies. Nearly a dozen species names have
been given to its various disguises, all of which are now
recognized as synonyms. In the more northern regions
where it is found, only one of these forms usually occurs,
but in other places bright yellow and pale white varieties
are found.

The life-history of this butterfly along latitude forty
degrees is very similar to that of the Clouded Sulphur.
There seem to be usually two broods and the caterpillars
live upon leguminous plants, especially alfalfa, buffalo
clovers, wild senna, and other species of Trifolium and
Cassia. Apparently also it hibernates in both the caterpillar
and the butterfly stages.

In the extreme Southwest—as on the plains of Texas—the
vegetation dries up completely in summer so that
there is no succulent leafage for the caterpillars to live
upon. In such cases the insect must aestivate rather than
hibernate. This species apparently succeeds in doing this
by having the caterpillars go into a more or less lethargic
condition in which they pass the summer. The adult
butterflies utterly disappear in June and are not seen
again until early in autumn when the autumn rains have
started the growth of vegetation anew. The insects then
[Pg 104]
make up for lost time and produce several broods in rapid
succession.

In the Imperial Valley of California this butterfly is a
serious pest to alfalfa growers. It continues to reproduce
throughout a very long season, one brood following another
from March until December, and in mild winters there
seems sometimes to be practically no cessation of its
activities. Mr. V. L. Wildermuth found that the development
of a generation in breeding cages in this valley
varied from twenty-two to forty-four days, the latter in
cool, the former in hot weather. The stages in the first
and the third broods in spring varied thus: Egg, first six
days, third four days; larva, first thirty days, third twelve
days; chrysalis, first eight days, third five days. In this
case the first generation extended from March 15 to April
30 and the third from May 28 to June 20. After the
fourth brood of butterflies there was such an overlapping
of the various stages that it was impossible to distinguish
the broods.

This beautiful butterfly was first made known to the
world of science by Louis Agassiz, the great naturalist
who did so much to arouse a scientific interest among
Americans. He found it on a famous expedition to the
northern shores of Lake Superior, which not only served
to bring to light many interesting phases of geological
history but also laid the foundation for the copper mining
industry which has since become so important in that
[Pg 105]
region. The butterfly thus brought to light has been
found to be a characteristic northern species, occupying
a rather narrow belt nearly along the fiftieth degree of
latitude and extending west almost to the Pacific Coast.
The species is occasionally taken as far south as the White
Mountains and there are indications that in this region
there are two broods a year. The male butterflies are
known at once by a beautiful pink edge on all the margins;
they bear otherwise a close resemblance to our common
Sulphur Yellow. The females are much lighter in color,
often having no black markings on the upper surface of
the hind wings.

This is essentially a tropical butterfly which has spread
out over most of our Southern states where it is abundant
and widely distributed. It adds a distinct touch of color
and life to many landscapes when the butterflies swarm
by thousands upon clover blossoms and other low vegetation.
The eggs are laid upon the leaves of clover and
more especially upon some common species of Cassia,
such as wild senna. Each egg soon hatches into a small
greenish cylindrical worm, colored and striped in such a
way that as it rests upon the leaf it is easily overlooked.
This larva develops rapidly and soon becomes about an
inch and a quarter long, being rather slender and fairly
smooth. It now spins a bit of silk upon a twig or some
similar support and also the frailest sort of a silken loop
to pass around its back. It now entangles its hind feet
[Pg 106]
in the bit of silk and soon casts off its last caterpillar skin,
emerging as a curious looking chrysalis about three
quarters of an inch long with a remarkable pointed projection
on the front of the head. When seen through a
hand lens this pointed projection and the well-developed
characteristic wing sheaths give the chrysalis a remarkable
resemblance to some of the twig hoppers or Membracids.
The colors vary considerably with the surroundings but
are commonly toned in various shades of green and yellow
brown.

A little later each chrysalis breaks open to disclose one
of the beautiful butterflies.

The conditions under which this butterfly lives at the
limit of its northern range are not well determined. It is
probable that many of those seen here have flown from
considerably farther south, and that these migrants lay
eggs from which a brood of butterflies develops, these
native born appearing late in summer. Presumably the
latter hibernate, but whether they can do this successfully
under the rigorous conditions of our northern winters has
never been determined. In fact, Scudder wrote some years
ago that no caterpillars had ever been found in New England.
Here is an interesting opportunity for some young
observer to make a real contribution to science.

Were one to imagine a Clouded Sulphur butterfly reduced
to half its usual size and built with a corresponding
delicacy of structure, one would have a pretty good idea
[Pg 107]
of the beautiful little creature called by the above name.
I well remember in my college days taking what was probably
the first of these butterflies ever collected in the region
of our Michigan college. It was a prize that very
likely had wandered north from Indiana but which served
to add much glory to the little collection in which I took
such pride, for this is essentially a southern species.
In many regions of the South it is so abundant that it
can be taken by any one. It ranges from coast to coast
and extends south into the tropics. In the eastern region
it is found from southern Wisconsin to southern New
England, occurring sparingly and locally in various places
along the line thus indicated.

The food plant of the species is chiefly wild senna or
other kinds of Cassia. The mother butterflies deposit
the eggs singly on leaves or stems, generally on the small
leaflets of the compound leaf. Less than a week later
each egg hatches into a cylindrical greenish caterpillar
that feeds upon the leaflets in a characteristic fashion.
Instead of devouring the blade from the margin inward it
gnaws narrow strips between the smaller veins. When not
feeding, the caterpillars protect themselves from observation
by birds or other enemies by resting motionless along
the stem of the leaflet or else along the midrib on the under
side. As is well known the leaflets of Cassia, like other
leguminous plants, close at night. It is probably on this
account that these caterpillars feed chiefly by day. The
general green color of the skin and the straight stripe along
the side help to make this caterpillar very inconspicuous
when it is at rest.

When full grown the caterpillar reaches a length of three
quarters of an inch. It now finds some bit of shelter on
[Pg 108]
which it spins a bit of flat web and a silken loop to hold it
in place as it becomes a chrysalis. It then changes and
remains quiescent for ten days or more when it emerges
as the dainty butterfly.

Notwithstanding its abundance and its successive
broods its life-history is none too completely worked out.
There is still opportunity for careful observations upon
the way in which it passes the winter in various parts of
its range. While in the South it apparently hibernates
as an adult, this fact is not certain in the more northern
localities.

Notwithstanding its diminutive size this butterfly has
been known to swarm in such enormous numbers as to
seem a veritable cloud. The most notable record of this
has been quoted by Scudder in connection with a swarm
that invaded the Bermuda Islands, in 1874, on the first
day of October. It was described in these words:

"Early in the morning several persons living on the
north side of the main island perceived, as they thought,
a cloud coming over from the northwest, which drew
nearer and nearer to the shore, on reaching which it
divided into two parts, one of which went eastward and the
other westward, gradually falling upon the land. They
were not long in ascertaining that what they had taken for
a cloud was an immense concourse of small yellow butterflies,
which flitted about all the open grassy patches in a
lazy manner, as if fatigued after their long voyage over the
deep. Fishermen out near the reefs, some few miles to the
north of the islands very early that morning, stated that
numbers of these insects fell upon their boats, literally
covering them."

As is the case with so many of the related yellow butterflies
[Pg 109]
there is an albino variety of this species. It has been
given the variety name alba although it is really a pale
yellow rather than a true albino form.

While the Little Sulphur butterfly seems about as
delicate a creature as one could ask to see, it loses that distinction
when it is compared with the still smaller Dainty
Sulphur. The latter expands scarcely an inch when its
wings are stretched apart, and its slender body and antennae
help to give the suggestion of extreme delicacy.
There is more marking of black upon the sulphur-yellow
wings than is the case with the larger form, the upper portion
of the front wings showing only a broad yellow band
upon a background of darker color. The under wings are
nearly all yellow.

Brimstone or Cloudless Sulphur (Callidryas eubule or
Catopsilia eubule). Expanse 2½ inches. Upper surface of
male clear, light, sulphur yellow. Female with a brown
spot in front of middle of each front wing and a narrow
brown margin on all the wings. Under surface deeper
yellow with sparsely scattered brownish dots.

Red-barred Sulphur (Callidryas philea or Catopsilia
philea). Expanse 3 inches. Easily known by the reddish
orange bars on the sulphur-yellow wings.

Large Orange Sulphur (Callidryas agarithe or Catopsilia
agarithe). Expanse 2½ inches. Distinguished at once by
[Pg 110]
its uniform orange-yellow color.

Dog's-head Butterfly (Zerene caesonia, Colias caesonia or
Meganostoma caesonia). Expanse 2¼ inches. Upper surface
yellow with black inner and outer borders on front
wings and black outer border on hind wings. The black
and yellow of each front wing so combined as to make a
distinct dog's head with black eye.

Clouded Sulphur (Eurymus philodice or Colias philodice).
Expanse 2 inches. Upper surface sulphur yellow with
blackish borders, the yellow brighter in the male than in
the female. Male with line between yellow and black
distinct, a black spot just in front of the middle of each
front wing and an orange spot near the middle of each hind
wing. Under surface of male deeper yellow, with spots as
on the upper surface but without black margin, and with a
row of sub-marginal brownish dots on each wing. Female
with upper surface more generally suffused between marginal
mark and the yellow part with more or less duskiness
both above and below. Spots on each wing much as in
male. In the white form of the female (pallidice) the
yellow is replaced by white.

Pink-edged Sulphur (Eurymus interior). At once distinguishable
from philodice by the narrow pink edge of all
the wings, showing both from above and from below,
slightly smaller as a rule.

Orange Sulphur (Eurymus eurytheme or Colias eurytheme).
Expanse 2¼ inches. Much like Clouded Sulphur
in markings except that prevailing color-tone is orange
yellow.

Black-bordered Sulphur (Eurema nicippe, Xanthidia
nicippe or Terias nicippe). Expanse 2 inches. Upper
surface of wings bright orange with a small black dash in
[Pg 111]
front of the middle of each front wing and a broad black
border on all the wings. In the females the borders are interrupted
at the rear. Under surface slightly brownish
yellow, minutely striated and clouded when exposed when
the butterfly alights.

Little Sulphur (Eurema euterpe, Eurema lisa, Xanthidia
lisa or Terias lisa). Expanse 1 inch. Easily known by its
small size and delicate structure. Upper surface of wings
yellow with distinct black borders. Under surface yellow
with indistinct spots.

Dainty Sulphur (Nathalis iole). Expanse 1 inch.
Easily known by its small size and narrow yellow wings
with black bars across the outer angles and black bands
across the back border of the front wings and the front
border of the hind wings.

A large proportion of our most familiar butterflies
belongs to this family. The Fritillaries, the Angle-wings,
the Sovereigns, and the Emperors are tribes in which
practically all the species are of medium or large size.
The Crescent-spots include a few which are rather
small.

The combinations of characters by which the Nymph
family is distinguished are these: Front legs dwarfed into
lappets; scaly antennae; veins of fore wings not swollen at
base; wings of normal shape, not much longer than
wide. Larvae cylindrical, but varying greatly in form,
color, and skin coverings. Chrysalids angular in most
[Pg 112]
species, in others rounded.

The stories of the lives of the many members of this
family vary considerably, as one would expect from their
variety and numbers. We may take, however, the life of
the familiar Antiopa or Mourning Cloak as typical of the
group. Briefly summarized, its story may thus be told:

During sunny days in spring one may often see a beautiful
purple-back butterfly, having a cream-colored border
along the outer margin of its wings, flying leisurely about,
in the vicinity of woods and in the open fields. This insect
is called the Antiopa or Mourning Cloak; it is represented
natural size in plate opposite page 145. It has
passed the winter in this adult condition, having found
shelter in some retreat where it is not directly exposed to
the storm and stress of the weather.

When the leaves of the elm, willow, and poplar trees are
nearly expanded, these butterflies deposit their eggs upon
the twigs. These eggs are laid in clusters encircling the
twigs, there being twenty or more in each cluster. In the
act of oviposition, the butterfly keeps her wings spread
out, moving the body and abdomen about as the placing
of the eggs necessitates.

About two weeks after the clusters of eggs are thus laid
upon the twigs of the food plant, they hatch into small
blackish caterpillars, each emerging from the egg shell
through a small hole that it eats out of the upper surface.
They thus enter upon the second stage in their life-history—the
larva or caterpillar stage. As soon as hatched,
they crawl to the nearest leaf upon which they range themselves
side by side, with their heads toward the margin of
the leaf. They feed in this position, nibbling at the green
surface of the leaf-blade and leaving the network of veins
untouched.

These caterpillars continue to feed in this manner for
[Pg 113]
about a week, remaining side by side when feeding, and
marching in processions from one leaf to another as the
food supply is exhausted. Wherever they go, each spins a
silken thread on the surface traversed, so that
the combination of all the threads makes a
sort of carpet that serves as a foothold for
the caterpillars. At the end of the week
they moult or cast their skins, a process in
which the skin of each larva splits open
along the back, and the larva crawls out
covered with a new skin that had been formed
beneath the old one. This new skin stretches
somewhat after the caterpillar emerges, so
that the insect is able to increase considerably in size.
At the period of moulting, the caterpillars remain quiet
for a short time, but they soon become active again and
begin feeding with increased voracity.

During the next three weeks, this moulting process is repeated
three times, the caterpillars becoming larger each
time, and leaving their cast skins upon the denuded twigs.
They soon scatter more or less over neighboring leaves,
but remain in closely associated colonies. As they increase
in size, they eat more and more of the leaf substance; when
half grown, they devour all but the midrib and the side
veins; but when they get larger, only the midribs are left.

The carpet web that they form becomes more conspicuous
as the caterpillars become full grown. They then
leave the tree or shrub on which they have been feeding,
and scatter about, seeking some sheltered situation. Having
found this—perhaps beneath a stump or along the
[Pg 114]
under side of a fence—each caterpillar spins a web of silk
along the surface. It then entangles the hooked claws of
its hind legs in the silken web, and lets its body hang vertically
with the head end curved upward. It remains in
this position some hours before the skin along the back
just behind the head splits apart and is gradually wriggled
upward, until finally it is all removed and there hangs in
place of the caterpillar a peculiar object having no definite
form. But it rapidly assumes a definite form—that of the
chrysalis—which is grayish brown, different specimens
varying somewhat in shade.

In this quiet chrysalis, the insect is apparently almost as
inert as a mummy. If you touch it it will wriggle a little,
but otherwise it hangs there mute and helpless. On the inside,
however, the tissues are being made over in such a
wonderful way that, in about two weeks, from the mummy
case into which the caterpillar entered there comes a
beautiful butterfly.

When this butterfly first breaks through the mummy
shell, its wings are very small, although its body, antennae,
and legs are well developed. By means of the latter, it
clings to the empty chrysalis, while its wings expand. At
first these wings are short, but as soon as the insect takes
a position in which the wings hang downward, they begin
to expand, and soon reach full length, but are more or less
crumpled longitudinally, and the front wings are not so
wide as the hind ones, hanging limply inside the latter.

After the butterfly has thus reached its full form and
size, it crawls from the chrysalis to some neighboring
support, where it rests quietly for half an hour or more.
During the latter part of this time it exercises its unused
muscles by slowly opening and closing its wings, until
[Pg 115]
it finally flies away.

This is one of the most distinctive tribes of the family of
Nymphs. The clubs of the antennae are about twice as
long as broad and curiously spoon-shaped. The palpi
are large and bushy, with the last joint very short. Most
of the species are rather large and practically all are
beautifully mottled in various tones of brown, red, black,
and silvery gray. A large proportion of our midsummer
butterflies are members of this tribe.

In tropical America there is a genus of butterflies called
Agraulis. These are fairly large insects, approximating
the size of the Viceroy, which show most beautiful colors
in the tropical sunshine. One member of this genus has
come north to our Southern states, and is occasionally
found as far up as Virginia and southern Illinois, extending
below this from ocean to ocean. It reveals on its upper
surface the most exquisite tints of iridescent purples and
browns, suggesting by its form and color as thus seen a
tropical species. The lower wing surface, when the wings
are closed in their natural position, shows only a spangled
effect of silver-white and brown, which is very suggestive
of the under surface of our northern Spangled Fritillaries.
So this beautiful species may fittingly be called the Gulf
Fritillary, carrying over from the north some of its peculiar
[Pg 116]
beauty and connecting with the equally distinctive beauty
of the tropical south.

Like so many other southern butterflies the eggs of this
species are laid upon the leaves of passion vines. The
caterpillars develop very rapidly and when matured are
yellowish or brownish yellow, striped with darker lines
along the back and sides. There are black branching
spines, arranged in rows beginning on the head and running
backward on the body. The whole cycle of life from
egg to butterfly may take place within the short period of a
month and one brood succeeds another in so irregular and
rapid a fashion that it is difficult to determine definitely
the number of broods in a season.

There is something in the appearance of the upper surface
of this butterfly that suggests the other Fritillaries
on the one hand and the Emperors on the other. The
coloring and marking is a bit like the former and the
shape of the wings like the latter. The general color is
a golden brown with darker markings arranged in bands
and eye-spots in a rather complicated pattern. The
under surface, so far as it is exposed when the butterfly
is at rest, is a beautiful marbled combination of gray and
brown which is probably distinctly obliterative in the
haunts of these insects. The front wings have the outer
margin concave in the middle, giving a special prominence
to the shape of each front outer angle.

This butterfly is a southern rather than a northern species,
[Pg 117]
but it is found occasionally from Montana to Massachusetts
and southward to Arizona, Mexico, and Florida.
Even in northern Indiana it is very seldom found and is
considered rare in the southern part of that state. Around
Buffalo, New York, it is also rare and is not common in the
vicinity of New York City. In the more Southern states,
however, it is abundant and extends well through the continent
of South America.

There is considerable evidence to indicate that this
butterfly hibernates as an adult. In the more southern
regions it probably also hibernates in other stages, especially
the chrysalis and the larva. In regions where it
is double-brooded, as it appears to be in the latitude of
New York City, the seasonal history seems to run something
like this: the partly grown caterpillars which have
passed the winter in shelter at the surface of the soil feed
upon the leaves of violets and certain other plants. They
change to chrysalids, probably in May, and emerge as
butterflies in June. These butterflies lay eggs for a summer
brood of caterpillars which may feed upon the leaves
of violets, May apples, portulaca, and stonecrop. They
grow into cylindrical worms of a general reddish yellow
color, marked by longitudinal stripes of brown upon the
sides and a row of whitish dots upon the back. They
become matured in time to disclose the butterflies of the
second brood in August and September. Presumably
these butterflies lay eggs that develop into caterpillars
which hibernate when partially grown.

Farther south there are probably three broods a year
and hibernation may take place in various stages. There
is good opportunity for careful work in determining the
life-history of the species in different latitudes. The
[Pg 118]
butterfly is found in much the same situations as the
other Fritillaries, flying over meadows and along the
borders of woods.

This magnificent butterfly differs from the other Fritillaries
in the fact that the females are so unlike the males
that only a skilled naturalist would even guess that they
are related. Both sexes are rather rare and are found only
in a comparatively narrow range extending from West
Virginia to Missouri, northward to Ohio and Indiana, and
southward to Georgia and Arkansas.

This species was first described by Cramer a long time
ago from specimens of the male sex. It was later described
by Say and other writers all of whom saw only the males.
The other sex was first recognized by William H. Edwards,
whose account of its discovery as given in his splendid
work on the Butterflies of North America is worth quoting:

"No mention is made of the female by any author,"
wrote Mr. Edwards, "and it seems to have been unknown
till its discovery by me in 1864 in Kanawha County,
West Virginia. On the 20th August, I saw, for the
first time, a male hovering about the flowers of the
iron-weed (Vernonia fasciculata), and succeeded in taking
it. Two days afterwards, in same vicinity, while breaking
my way through a dense thicket of the same weed, hoping
to find another Diana, I came suddenly upon a large black
and blue butterfly feeding so quietly as to allow me to
[Pg 119]
stand near it some seconds and watch its motions. It
seemed to be a new species of Limenitis, allied to Ursula,
which it resembled in color. But on taking it, I saw it
was a female Argynnis, and the general pattern of the
under wing left little doubt of its affinity to the Diana
male, despite its total difference in color and of upper surface.
Subsequent captures confirmed this conjecture,
and out of the large number that have since been taken
the males have been of the known type and the females
black, with no tendency in either to vary in the direction
of the other.

"When my attention was called to the species I found
it not very uncommon, always upon or near the iron-weed,
which is very abundant and grows in rank luxuriance
upon the rich bottom lands of the Kanawha River, frequently
reaching a height from eight to ten feet and in
August covered by heads of purple flowers that possess
a remarkable attraction for most butterflies. Both sexes
are conspicuous, the males from the strong contrast of
color and the females from their great size and the habit of
alighting on the topmost flower and resting with wings
erect and motionless. It is an exceedingly alert and wary
species, differing in this from our other Argynnids. At
the slightest alarm it will fly high into the woods near
which, upon the narrow bottoms or river slopes, it is
invariably found. It is a true southern species, sensitive
to cold, not to be looked for in the cooler part of the
morning but flying down from the forest when the sun
is well up. From eleven to three o'clock is its feeding
time."

The life-history of this fine butterfly is similar to that of
the lesser Fritillaries. The butterflies appear from midsummer
[Pg 120]
onward, the males preceding the females, and the
eggs are laid on or near violets in August or September.
The larvae hibernate and mature early the following summer.
As they approach the chrysalis stage they are rather
large velvety black caterpillars with brown heads and
rows of fleshy barbed spines that show an orange tint at
their bases. There is thus but one generation each year.

The Regal Fritillary, fresh from the chrysalis, still
showing the marvelous sheen of its iridescence, furnishes
one of the most beautiful exhibitions of color in the world
of nature. Over the whole wing surface there are tiny
scales that reflect the sunlight in an almost dazzling manner,
giving a distinct purplish tone especially to the hind
wings.

The Regal Fritillary is one of the largest butterflies of
the distinctive group to which it belongs. The wings
expand some three inches and the rather thick body is
more than an inch long. The general ground color of the
wings is brown, with distinct markings of blackish which
in the hind wings almost obscure the brown. On each of
the latter as seen from above there is a distinct row of
cream-colored spots across the middle, duplicated by a
similar row of brown spots near the margin. The under
surface of both pairs of wings is much lighter and thickly
mottled all over with light cream-colored spots of a large
size and more or less triangular shape. (See Frontispiece.)

Like the other Argynnids, the Regal Fritillary is single-brooded
[Pg 121]
during the year and it has a rather remarkable
longevity in each stage of its life. The newly hatched
caterpillars go into hibernation and live through the
winter without feeding, finding shelter at the surface of
the ground, especially beneath the leaves of violets which
form their chosen food plants. When the snow has disappeared
and the warmth of the spring sun brings them
out of their winter lethargy these tiny caterpillars feed
upon the violet leaves and grow slowly for several weeks.
They then change to chrysalids, the time for doing this
varying considerably with the individual and doubtless
with the warmth of the situation in which each is living.
The length of time spent in the chrysalis varies also, but
in general it seems to be less for those which develop into
male butterflies than for the females. It is a curious fact
that the former may be found for nearly two weeks before
any of the latter appear.

The first butterflies of this species are usually disclosed
from the chrysalis late in June or early in July. They
continue to come forth for several weeks, apparently
until nearly the middle of August. They lead a leisurely
life, visiting freely the flowers of goldenrod, iron-weed,
boneset, Joe Pye weed, and especially swamp milkweed.
They are most likely to be found in lowlands and along
the borders of swamps where these favorite flowers are
growing. It evidently requires some time for the eggs
to develop within the ovaries, for the butterfly cannot begin
laying these until the latter part of August. They
apparently are normally deposited on the under side of
violet leaves, although so far as I know no butterfly has
been seen thus laying her eggs. It would be an interesting
point for some young observer to determine. Even
[Pg 122]
the eggs take a long time to develop, not hatching for three
or four weeks after they are laid. When they do hatch
the tiny caterpillars seem not to eat at all but to go directly
into hibernation.

These butterflies are to be found in their preferred habitats
almost any time during July, August, and September.
Apparently many of them live as adults for nearly three
months so that whether we consider the egg, the larva,
the chrysalis, or the adult we have in this species an unusual
duration of life. This is doubtless an adaptation to the
fact that the species must get through the year with only
one brood.

This unity of habit with no such variations as occur in
many butterflies with a wider range north and south is
apparently correlated with the distribution of this butterfly.
It is found in a belt of territory running from New
England and the Atlantic states westward at least to
Nebraska along a line which approximates the annual
isotherm of fifty degrees Fahrenheit.

To one who wanders much in the woods and open fields
there are few summer scenes more characteristic of the
season than that of a group of milkweeds in full flower,
surrounded by a host of brown butterflies busily sucking
the nectar from the curious pink blossoms. There are
likely to be several species of these winged creatures, but
in many regions of America the largest and most conspicuous
will generally be the Great Spangled Fritillary. This
[Pg 123]
butterfly is easily recognized by its large size and its
combination of two colors of brown, with whitish or
silverish spots scattered over the lower surface of the
wings.

The life-history of this insect is of peculiar interest on
account of the way in which it passes the winter. The
mother butterfly remains upon the wing through many
weeks in summer, so that toward the end of August or
early September a large proportion of the specimens have
a decidedly frayed appearance. They are patiently waiting
for the season of the year when they can deposit their
eggs, apparently knowing by instinct that this must not
be done until early autumn. When the proper season
arrives they lay their eggs upon the leaves or stems of wild
violets, apparently without much reference to the particular
species. Sometimes they have been reported
simply to drop the eggs loosely upon the violet plant
with no attempt to fasten them in place. Having thus
deposited the eggs the mother butterflies soon die.

It would not seem strange if these eggs remained unhatched
until the following spring, but the fact is that the
eggs hatch very soon into small caterpillars that eat off
part of the shells in order to escape and sometimes eat also
part of the shell remaining after they have emerged.
Various good observers have apparently established the
fact that these tiny caterpillars eat nothing else before
winter sets in. It seems curious indeed that they should
not nibble at the leaves or stems of the violet plants in
order to be slightly prepared for the long fast that awaits
them before they will find food upon the young buds the
following spring. The case is somewhat similar to that of
the common tent caterpillar which becomes a fully formed
[Pg 124]
caterpillar within the egg shell before the end of autumn,
but remains unhatched until the following spring. In the
present case the caterpillar hibernates outside of the egg
shell rather than within it.

When at last the warm sunshine of spring starts the
violets into new growth the tiny caterpillars begin feeding
upon the succulent tissues. They nibble away day after
day for a week or more before they become so large that
they have to cast their skin for the first time. They then
feed again and continue this process of feeding and moulting
until early in summer. They are likely to hide themselves
during daylight and have the reputation of being
difficult to rear under artificial conditions.

The full-grown caterpillar wanders along the surface of
the ground in search of suitable shelter for the chrysalis
period. When it comes to a large stone with sides projecting
more or less horizontally or a log lying upon
the ground or even a large piece of loose bark it is likely
to stop and change to the pupa or chrysalis. In this condition
it is dark brown in color and well covered with
thickened tubercles, especially along the back of the
abdomen.

About a fortnight later the chrysalis breaks open and the
fully developed butterfly comes forth. It rests quietly for
a time while its wings expand and the tissues harden and
then sallies forth for its long period of flight; for this insect
is single-brooded in the Northern states at least and the
butterflies that thus mature late in June or early in July
are likely to remain alive until early in September. So
they have a comparatively long life for a butterfly that
does not hibernate as an adult.

[Pg 125]

Our brown Fritillaries are seldom found without several
species mingling together. This is not strange, for they
have similar habits throughout their entire lives. So when
you see a bevy of butterflies collected around the midsummer
blossoms of the milkweed, you are pretty sure to find
that the Great Spangled Fritillary is associated with the
Silver-spot and probably one or two other related forms.
The Silver-spot is generally decidedly smaller than the
one first named and the surest way to be certain of it
is to look on the under side of the hind wing and see
whether there is a broad band of buff between the two
outer rows of silver spots. If this band has disappeared
or is nearly all taken up by the brown ground-color of
the wing, you may be pretty sure we have the Silver-spot
Fritillary.

When one has firmly fixed in mind the life cycle of one of
these butterflies, one has a model after which to fashion the
rest, for our several species are remarkably alike in this
respect.

The Silver-spots are on the wing for several weeks in
summer. During the latter part of this time the females
lay eggs upon violet leaves. These eggs shortly hatch into
caterpillars that go directly into hibernation, taking no
food before winter sets in. The following spring they feed
upon violet leaves and mature in time to change to chrysalids
and emerge as butterflies in early summer. There is
but one brood a year and the species is widely distributed
over southern Canada and the Northern states. It extends
south to Virginia and Pennsylvania and west to Nebraska,
[Pg 126]
Montana, and Washington.

If one were able to take a Silver-spot Fritillary and reduce
its size about one third he would have a wonderfully
good imitation of the present species. Except for the size,
about the only difference in the markings is found in the
blackish border along the margins of the Mountain Silver-spot
which is not present in the other species. The buff
sub-marginal border line on the under surface of the wings
between the rows of silver spots is also wider in the mountain
species.

The distribution of this butterfly justifies its name. It
is preëminently a northern species, being especially abundant
in the White Mountains of New Hampshire and ranging
northward far into Canada and west through British
America as far as the Mackenzie River. A pair of these
butterflies were captured by Merritt Carey on July 16,
1903, on the summit of Mount Tha-on-tha, in the Nahanni
Mountains, at an altitude of 2,500 feet. The southern
limit of its distribution approximates the isotherm of
forty-five degrees. It extends southward in mountainous
regions through New York and Pennsylvania and is found
in Michigan, Illinois, and Iowa. It also occurs in the
Rocky Mountain region of Colorado.

The various species of Argynnis show a remarkable uniformity
in their life-history. Like the others, this butterfly
is single-brooded, laying the eggs on or near violets late in
summer, the eggs hatching into larvae that take no food
[Pg 127]
until the following spring. They then feed upon the violet
leaves, become mature, and change to chrysalids in time for
the butterflies to emerge in June in New Hampshire.
These butterflies remain upon the wing for several weeks.
They usually appear a week or two earlier than Aphrodite
or Cybele in regions where all three species are found. It is
worth while for the collector to take a hint from this fact
and do his Silver-spot collecting early. For after the
other species appear it is not so easy to tell which is Atlantis
when the butterflies are on the wing. It is most likely
to be found in open places in the woods, apparently preferring
such situations to the broad expanse of fields and
meadows.

This is distinctly a mountain butterfly, known to be
found only near the top of Mount Washington and other
neighboring parts of the White Mountains. It generally
occurs between the altitudes of four thousand and fifty-five
hundred feet. It is doubtless closely related to a
somewhat similar form found farther north and west, but
its isolation from them is complete. Apparently it is
single-brooded and very little is known of the early stages.
The butterflies visit the flowers of goldenrod and those of
the alpine sand-wort which are abundant in the sub-alpine
home of this species.

This variety is interesting as a living souvenir of the
day when New England was buried beneath the ice-sheet.

[Pg 128]

The fact of variation is one of the most universal things
in nature. No two animals are exactly alike and every
plant differs from every other plant. That this is true of
the structure of living things is easily observed but it is not
so well known, because not so easily observed, that most
species of animals differ also in the precise phases of their
growth. We know that the variation in form and color
has brought about the remarkable adaptations to surroundings
which we call mimicry and protective coloration.
A little consideration will make it evident that the
variation of different individuals in periods of growth must
have led also to the adaptation of the life stages to the conditions
of the changing seasons. This is particularly true
in the great majority of insects which show remarkable
adaptations in their various broods to the seasonal conditions
of the localities where they live.

From this point of view the attractive little Meadow
Fritillary is of especial interest. We are indebted to the
studies of S. H. Scudder for our knowledge of the remarkable
variations in its growth. These are so complicated
that in order to make plain the varying conditions it seems
necessary to separate the broods in a somewhat hypothetical
manner.

We will begin with what we shall call Group A: The
[Pg 129]
butterflies are on the wing in May and early June. They
have just come from the chrysalis and continue living for
three or four weeks before they deposit eggs, this time
being required in order that the eggs may develop in the
ovaries of the butterflies. These eggs hatch in about a
week and the caterpillars become full grown a month later.
They then change to chrysalids in which condition they remain
another week, thus requiring five or six weeks for the
newly laid eggs to mature into butterflies. Supposing
the eggs were laid the first week in June, the butterflies of
this second brood would appear about the middle of July.
The eggs in the ovaries of some of these butterflies also require
several weeks before they are ready to be laid, so that
it may be about the tenth of August when this happens.
These hatch and mature to chrysalids during the next six
weeks, the butterflies of this brood emerging about the
middle of September. These in turn lay eggs at once apparently,
no extended period being required for their development
before they are laid. The eggs hatch during the
latter part of September and the young caterpillars feed
upon the violet leaves for two or three weeks, moulting perhaps
twice and becoming approximately half grown. They
now stop feeding and go into a lethargic condition in which
they hibernate. Then in spring they awaken and feed
again upon the violet leaves for a short time, becoming
mature and changing to chrysalids sufficiently early to
emerge as butterflies late in May.

In this hypothetical group we have a fairly normal condition
of a three-brooded butterfly hibernating in the stage
of the half-grown larva and requiring some weeks for the
development of the eggs in the ovaries of the butterflies in
the case of the first two broods but not of the third.

In another group, which we may designate as B, the conditions
may be similar except that the butterflies lay their
eggs very soon after coming from the chrysalis in the case of
all three broods. Obviously there would be a tendency
here for hastening the earliness of the broods so that the
[Pg 130]
hibernating caterpillars might either become larger or
might go into the hibernating condition earlier than those
of Group A.

In Group C, the variation takes place in the larvae rather
than in the butterflies. These may go on in the normal way
up to the time the caterpillars of the summer brood become
half grown. Then they become lethargic, ceasing to feed
and to all appearances going into hibernation. They remain
in this condition until the following spring when they
come forth from their winter's sleep and feed upon the
violets in precisely the same way as the caterpillars of the
third brood of Groups A and B.

In Group D we have another interesting variation of the
larvae. These are the same as C up to the time of becoming
lethargic, that is, the larvae of the summer or
second brood become lethargic at the same time as those of
Group C but instead of continuing in this condition until
the following spring they remain in lethargy only three or
four weeks, then they wake up (having apparently then
changed their caterpillar minds) and begin to feed, soon
maturing and changing to chrysalids from which butterflies
emerge late in September or early in October. The result
is that these butterflies lay eggs so late that the cold nights
come on apace and the little caterpillars apparently
take no food at all but go into hibernation immediately.
In consequence these must eat for a longer period the
following spring, so that the butterflies into which they
mature will be likely not to appear until well along in
June.

It is probable that even this rather elaborate statement
does not do justice to all the variations in the development
of this little butterfly. But perhaps enough has been said
[Pg 131]
to help us to understand something of the way in which
such insects are able to adapt their life habits to the conditions
of their environment. It is easy to see that if conditions
should so change as to give any one of these groups
a decided advantage over the others, the tendency would
be for the other groups to disappear and for the group of
favored habits to survive.

The Meadow Fritillary is common in Canada and the
Northern states east of the Rocky Mountains. It is
found especially in lowland meadows and along the borders
of swamps, the very situations chosen by the food
plants of the larva, the blue and the white violets. The
butterflies may be often seen sipping nectar from the
various species of mint and related plants found in such
situations. It is commonly associated with the Silver-bordered
Fritillary, from which it is easily distinguished
because it has no silver spots upon its wings.

This attractive little butterfly bears a close general resemblance
to the Meadow Fritillary, from which it differs
chiefly by the continuous row of silver spots along the border
of the under side of both pairs of wings. It is found
in the same localities as the other and its life-history is
very similar.

The present species is widely distributed in North America,
being found as far west as the upper Mississippi Valley
and the Rocky Mountains, and southward as far as
the Carolinas. In New England and the Atlantic states
[Pg 132]
it is one of the commonest of the smaller butterflies.

Beginning with the butterflies which are seen in the
fields and meadows in September, the yearly cycle of this
insect may be summarized in this way: the eggs laid in
September hatch in a few days into tiny caterpillars, some
of which become lethargic at once, while others begin
feeding upon the violet leaves and continue thus to feed
until they are about half grown. These then also become
lethargic and find shelter just above the soil surface
where they remain until the following spring. They then
begin to feed again upon the violet leaves and at about
the same time the other caterpillars which became dormant
as soon as hatched, also waken and feed upon these
leaves. Naturally those which were half grown at the
beginning of spring are likely to mature and change to
chrysalids two or three weeks earlier than those which were
so small at the beginning of the season. Consequently
the fresh butterflies will be found from late in May to the
latter part of June. Presumably those which first appeared
have developed from the larger caterpillars and the
later ones from the smaller caterpillars.

The butterflies of this first brood of the season lay their
eggs upon the violet leaves, generally upon the upper surface
of the blade, but occasionally upon the stems or upon
near-by grasses. These eggs hatch in about a week into
caterpillars that mature during the next three or four
weeks, coming forth as a second brood of butterflies late
in July or early in August. These in like manner lay
their eggs and develop into a third brood which matures
as butterflies in September. These lay eggs that hatch
into the caterpillars which live through the winter. There
are thus three broods of butterflies during the year and it
[Pg 133]
is probable that there is the same remarkable variation
in the habits of the different broods that have been found
in the ease of the Meadow Fritillary.

Gulf Fritillary (Agraulis vanillae). Expanse 2¾ inches.
Apex of each front wing produced into a distinct angle.
Upper surface of all wings reddish brown, marked with
black spots and an interrupted black border, the border
on the hind wings enclosing round red-brown spots.
Under surface, so far as it shows when insect is at rest,
nearly covered with large silver-white spots. Found only
in the more Southern states.

Variegated Fritillary (Euptoieta claudia). Expanse 2½
inches. Apex of each front wing produced into a distinct
angle. Upper surface of all wings fulvous brown, thickly
marked with buff and brownish black. A sub-marginal
row of black dots on each of the wings, outside of which
is a row of buff crescents on the blackish border. Under
surface, as it shows when the butterfly is at rest, beautifully
marbled in creamy browns and deeper browns. No
distinct silver spots in either surface.

Diana Fritillary (Argynnis diana). Male. Expanse
3½ inches. Apex of fore wings rounded. Upper surface
of all wings, with a little more than basal half, solid
brownish black and the rest of the surface orange-brown,
marked with darker brown round spots and vein lines.
Under surface light buff, marked with black, with silver
crescents and spots on hind wings. Female. Expanse
4 inches. Upper surface of all wings blackish with bluish
or greenish iridescence, and marginal third marked with
blue spots and stripes. These are more prominent on the
[Pg 134]
hind wings. Under surface slaty brown with prominent
silver crescents on the hind wings.

Idalia or Regal Fritillary (Argynnis idalia). Male.
Expanse 3 inches. Front wings fulvous brown with black
spots and markings. Hind wings black except at base
with a row of fulvous brown sub-marginal spots and an
inner row of whitish or bluish white spots. Female.
Expanse 3½ inches. Similar to male except for larger size
and the fact that the two rows of spots on the hind wings
are yellowish brown.

Great Spangled Fritillary (Argynnis cybele). Expanse
3¼ inches. General color of wings fulvous brown with
black markings on upper surface and black and silver
markings on under surface. The yellow band between
the rows of silver spots on hind wings is broad. There is
a distinct narrow fulvous stripe on the upper side of the
hind wing just inside the outer margin, and a similar
stripe along the margin of the front wing, more or less
interrupted by the veins.

Silver-spot Fritillary (Argynnis aphrodite). Expanse
3 inches. Similar to the Great Spangled but a little
smaller, and with the buff yellow band between the rows
of silver spots on the lower surface much narrower and almost
disappearing at the rear.

Mountain Silver-spot (Argynnis atlantis). Expanse 2¼
inches. Known by its smaller size and the black marginal
border stripe on all the wings, with no brown line dividing
this stripe.

Silver-bordered Fritillary (Brenthis myrina). Expanse
1¾ inches. Known by its small size and a marginal row
of silver spots on the under side of each of the wings, and
with many other silver spots scattered over the under surface
[Pg 135]
of the hind wings.

Meadow Fritillary (Brenthis bellona). Expanse 2 inches.
Easily known by the absence of silver spots on all the
wings. The wings are long in proportion to their width.

The members of this tribe have the following combinations
of characters: scaly antennae, with a short stout
club some three times as long as broad, and a pair of
slender palpi in which the terminal joint is only about half
as long as the middle one. There may or may not be a
slight ridge running lengthwise of the naked part of the
antennal club.

Although more than fifty distinct species belonging to
this tribe have been found in North America, very few
of these are distributed through the eastern part. Only
four are so abundant and widely distributed that they need
be treated of here.

To the naturalist those islands in the seas which are
remote from the mainland have long been of especial interest.
The life upon them is likely to show the results
of many generations of living under unique conditions.
The plants and animals are generally distinctive, many of
the species having characteristics which differentiate
them markedly from those upon the mainland. They
show in a thousand ways the effect of isolation and so are
of especial value when one attempts to determine the results
[Pg 136]
of unusual conditions upon living things.

In a somewhat similar way the peat bogs or sphagnum
swamps which occur here and there over a large part of
North America are of especial interest, because in a way
they are biological islands in which the conditions of a
long past age are preserved until the present. These
nearly always occur in a little valley surrounded on all sides
by hills. Here the water has collected originally into a pond
or lake, which has been gradually filling up through the
growth of peat mosses and a special set of other plants
that develop in such situations. One can still find many
stages in the process. In some bogs the surface will be
practically covered, although the water beneath may still
be so abundant that the matted moss quakes as one walks
over it. Sometimes such bogs are really dangerous because
the walker may drop through to the water beneath.
In most of the bogs, however, the little lake is nearly filled
but shows the surface over a small area.

The conditions in these peat bogs have changed little
since civilization began. They are relics of an earlier
era which have come down to us as types of conditions
that once existed very generally. The plant life is unique
and consists almost entirely of forms which are found practically
nowhere else. There are comparatively few animals
living in these peat bogs and all of these are likely
to be of especial interest. Among the insects none is
more remarkable than the Baltimore Checker-spot butterfly
which has several peculiarities that differentiate
it from the other members of the group. It seems to have
come down to us unchanged from a far remote past and
to be living its tranquil life to-day in precisely the same
manner as during the time when the mammoth and the mastodon
[Pg 137]
were likely to invade its haunts.

The Baltimore is probably the most local in its distribution
of any of the butterflies found throughout Canada
and the Northern states. It is to be looked for only in
peat bogs and swamps, and it has a remarkable unity in
its life-history whether it be found in northern Canada or
as far south as West Virginia. The butterfly itself is
rather large, measuring a little more than two inches across
its expanded wings and being colored with an unusual
combination of fulvous and yellow upon a black background.
It is present as a rule only from about the first
of June to the middle of July. The eggs, in bunches of
from one hundred to four hundred, are laid upon the
leaves of the plant commonly called snake-head or turtle-head
(Chelone glabra). They do not hatch for nearly three
weeks; then the little caterpillars emerge together and
usually each eats a little of the empty egg shell. They
are then likely to form a thin web over the under surface
of the leaf beneath which they remain as a small company
feeding upon the succulent green tissue. A little later
they are likely to begin the construction of a miniature
nest by spinning a silken web over the young leaves at the
top of the plant. From this time on this silken nest serves
as their home, and they utilize it almost as effectively as
do our familiar American tent caterpillars the nest which
they make in the forks of the wild cherry tree. The
Baltimore caterpillars often wander more or less from their
tent-like home but they generally come back to feed as
well as to moult. If the nest is injured by wind or rain, all
the caterpillars turn out to repair it and as the need for
new food supplies arises they also unite to enlarge the
tent. This habit of working together for the common
[Pg 138]
good is very suggestive of the similar habits of the American
tent caterpillars. Doors for going in and out are
left in the tent during its construction.

The tent thus made is likely to be deserted after the first
moult and a new and larger one constructed on another
part of the plant. Two or perhaps three such nests may
be made from the time the caterpillar hatches until after
the second moult. The last nest made is very likely to be
upon some neighboring bushy plant or at least to include
some branches of such a plant if the bulk of the nest is
made upon snake-head. For after the third moult the
caterpillars stop feeding and become more or less quiet,
thus beginning a nine months' fast, during which they are
simply to wait until the return of spring. This fast may
be begun any time from the middle of August until early
in September, and even when brought indoors the caterpillars
cannot be induced to eat. It is evidently the way
in which the species has bridged over the winter during the
thousands of generations of its existence, and the instinct
is so firmly fixed that it cannot be changed. Even in
West Virginia, where the caterpillars would have plenty
of time during the summer to mature as butterflies that
would bring forth another generation of caterpillars that
might pass the winter, the condition is the same as in the
far northern regions.

So within the shelter of the silken nest these Baltimore
caterpillars remain from the middle of August until May.
Then when the spring sunshine has sufficiently warmed
their cool retreats they come forth and feed greedily upon
the young leaves. They now soon make up for lost
time and complete their growth as caterpillars very
quickly. When full fed they wander about in all directions,
[Pg 139]
each hunting its own shelter before becoming a
chrysalis. Having found a twig or branch that suits their
purpose each hangs downward and changes to a brownish
yellow chrysalis, more or less marked with black. It remains
in this condition for about a fortnight, when it comes
forth as the Baltimore butterfly which thus appears again
about the first of June.

These butterflies seem to have some of the characteristics
of their unique surroundings. There are very few
flowers in the peat bogs and it is significant that the butterflies
instead of flitting from flower to flower, as do most of
our familiar species, fly rather in a slow and lazy fashion
from leaf to leaf, lighting upon the foliage or frequently
upon the surface of the moss or ground. They seem lethargic
and have little of the animation which we usually
associate with the name butterfly.

In my mind the Baltimore is associated with the White
Mountain butterfly as a survivor of a former geologic
period. The latter was developed under colder conditions
and now survives only on a few isolated mountain peaks;
but the former has survived wherever the peat bog has
held its sway during the long ages that the surrounding
landscape has been taking on its present-day condition.
Many things in the life of the Baltimore point to its primitive
condition: the laying of the eggs in loose clusters, the
long lethargy of the caterpillars, the limited flight of the
butterflies—all indicate a creature with habits firmly fixed
by long ages of development in a definite environment.

No collector should feel sure that the Baltimore is not to
be one of his trophies until he has visited in June every
peat bog or sphagnum swamp in his locality. One may
search years without finding it, and then come across a
[Pg 140]
dozen in a single day. I well remember the interest with
which I first found this species on the margin of a great
swamp in Michigan when I was eager for every new butterfly
to add to my collection. I had never seen it alive before
and the thrill with which the first specimen was captured
can be realized only by those remembering similar
experiences.

This little butterfly so closely resembles the Pearl
Crescent and the Silver Crescent that on the wing it is
easily mistaken for them. It really looks more like them
than it does the Baltimore Checker-spot, which is considerably
larger and darker colored than the present
species. This is essentially a northern form occurring
only in a narrow strip of country east of Minnesota and
Wisconsin, running on the north through southern Canada
and on the south through Michigan, New York, and Massachusetts.

This insect is one of the best-known botanists among all
the butterflies. In the very difficult group of asters which
has caused endless confusion to human botanists these insects
seem always able to select the one species—Aster
umbellatus. It has been repeatedly found that the caterpillars
would starve rather than eat the leaves of other
kinds of asters, and so far as known they have never been
found feeding outdoors upon any other.

These butterflies appear along roadsides and in open
fields about the middle of June. They are often very
[Pg 141]
abundant and are much more generally distributed than
the Baltimore Checker-spot. A few weeks later the females
lay their eggs upon the aster leaves, the eggs being
deposited in clusters of twenty or more on the under side
of the leaf. Early in July the little caterpillars come forth
and remain together in colonies as they feed upon the
green tissues of the leaves. Each is able to spin a silken
thread so that wherever they go they weave a web and
they soon protect themselves with a slight silken shelter,
which is suggestive of the nests made by the Baltimore caterpillar.
They continue to live in this manner for several
weeks in July and August, growing rather gradually and
becoming approximately half grown before the frosts of
autumn. Unlike the Baltimore caterpillars they now desert
their nests and find shelter at or near the surface of the
ground. Here they hibernate, to come forth the following
spring and feed again upon the new growth of the aster
plants, often doing considerable damage by denuding the
young shoots of their leaves. They become full grown in
time to change to chrysalids so that the butterflies may
emerge in June.

While this species has not the broad distribution for which
the Pearl Crescent is notable it occurs over a large part of
the United States. Its distribution is bounded broadly by
a line running from southern Canada north of Maine to a
point in southern Canada north of Montana, whence it
runs south through Wyoming and Utah to the corner of
[Pg 142]
Arizona, and thence east through New Mexico and Texas
to Ohio and West Virginia, extending south near the coast
to North Carolina. It thus includes a broad belt of territory
occupying fully one half of the area of the United
States.

Throughout this vast area the Silver Crescent is often a
purely local species, occurring abundantly during its brief
season in some favorable locality but seldom being seen
in other places near by. In the north it is single-brooded,
the butterflies appearing on the wing during June and
commonly disappearing early in July. Late in June the
females lay their eggs in clusters of a hundred or less on
the under surface of the leaves of various composite
plants, notably sunflowers, asters, and a common species
of Actinomeris. A week or more later these hatch into
little caterpillars that feed together in colonies upon the
green tissues of the leaf, taking only the succulent parenchyma
and leaving the network of veins. As one leaf is
thus denuded they migrate to another, in this way passing
from leaf to leaf for several weeks in summer. They continue
to feed until about half grown when they desert the
food plant and find shelter at the soil surface. Here they
become lethargic and hibernate until the following spring.
They then arouse again and feed upon the tender leaves of
the new growth, continuing to eat and grow for a few
weeks before they become mature as caterpillars and
change to chrysalids. A little later the chrysalids disclose
the butterflies which as already indicated appear in
June.

In more southern regions the life-story of the species is
not so simple. There is at least a partial second brood and
it is probable that in many localities the species is both
[Pg 143]
single-brooded and double-brooded. In such a case some
of the caterpillars go into hibernation probably about midsummer,
remaining quiescent through the later weeks of
summer and all the weeks of fall and winter, while others
would mature to chrysalids and butterflies in summer, and
the butterflies would lay eggs for a second brood of larvae
which would hibernate when partially grown. There are
opportunities for careful observers to do good work upon
the life-history of this species in many parts of its range.

Some years ago Mr. Samuel H. Scudder, the most notable
student of New England butterflies, wrote a delightful
essay with the title "Butterflies as Botanists." From his
long experience in rearing the eggs of these insects he concluded
that the egg-laying females know in a most remarkable
way the precise kinds of leaves upon which to oviposit.
He educed many illustrations in proof of the fact
and quoted a remark of Asa Gray, the most eminent of
American botanists, that is worth repeating. At that
time Scudder had reason to believe that the Pearl Crescent
laid its eggs exclusively upon the New England aster.
Now the asters as a group have been a source of much
trouble to the botanists who have attempted to classify
them as to species and variety. The various forms are so
similar to one another that different authorities have not
agreed as to the limitations of the species. So when Gray was
told that this little butterfly was able always to distinguish
and select for her egg-laying a single species of this vexing
[Pg 144]
tribe he replied: "If your butterfly selects only that, it is a
better botanist than most of us."

While later observers have found that this beautiful little
insect is not so exclusive in its choice of a food plant as was
formerly believed, it serves to illustrate the fact that a
large proportion of the caterpillars of this group have a
very narrow range of food plants. In nearly every case
where the food is thus restricted the insect feeds only upon
species which are closely related to one another, generally
falling within a single genus according to the classification
of the botanists.

There has been much discussion in regard to the way in
which the mother butterfly knows the particular species
which she chooses for oviposition. Experiments apparently
have shown that she is not dependent upon the
sense of sight but rather upon the sense of smell, which as
is well known is much more highly developed in insects
than in the higher animals. I suppose it is not very
strange that a creature which has fed from infancy upon
leaves with a certain taste and odor should in its later life
respond only to that particular odor and should neglect all
others. In a way the butterfly itself is a product of the
plant and it probably is not necessary to assume that each
butterfly differentiates the odors of all kinds of plants but
only that she responds to the fragrance of the one with
which she has been particularly associated.

This idea may suggest to various observers an interesting
point of view. When you see a butterfly flying leisurely
from plant to plant and alighting upon the leaves rather
than the blossom, you may be pretty sure that she is bent
upon egg-laying. Now watch her to see if she goes at once
to the particular kind of leaves she finally selects or does
she stop momentarily upon neighboring plants, apparently
trying to find the one from which the fragrance emanates
until at last she reaches it. Such observations have only
rarely been recorded and if carefully made, notes being
taken on the spot, they would have decided scientific
value.

[Pg 145]

Few butterflies are more abundant or more widely distributed
throughout North America than the beautiful
little Pearl Crescent. It occurs over practically the whole
of the United States and Canada and is found from early in
spring until late in autumn. It is a rather small species
with a wing expanse of only about an inch and a quarter,
the upper surface of the wings being that tone of reddish
brown called fulvous, more or less marked with black wavy
lines and dots. The under surface is similar in color, with a
small silver crescent near the outer margin of each hind
wing.

These butterflies are not very active creatures, although
they are commonly found in meadows and pastures along
brooks and by the borders of open woods. Instead of laying
their eggs singly as do so many of the more active butterflies,
they lay them in clusters, often of a hundred or
more, one layer of eggs being placed above the other upon
the aster leaf. In at least one case observed, the caterpillars
hatch from the layer farthest away from the leaf
surface before those of the layer next the leaf surface
emerge. This is an interesting provision, for were the latter
to come out first they would be likely to disarrange the
unhatched eggs. The caterpillars appear about a week
after the eggs are laid and remain together in crowded
[Pg 146]
colonies that feed upon the upper surface of the aster leaf.
At first they eat only the green tissue, leaving the bare
veins, although they are not careful to denude the entire
surface of the leaf as so many other caterpillars do. As one
leaf is exhausted they pass to another near by, continuing
thus to feed in companies for a few weeks. Their general
color is blackish, although the black is relieved with yellow
dots along the back and a band of a similar color on each
side. Unlike the larger social caterpillars of the Mourning
Cloak and other butterflies these larvae do not spin any
threads as they crawl from place to place, so there is absolutely
no nest made upon the aster leaf. This may possibly
be correlated with the fact that these caterpillars are
sluggish creatures and when disturbed drop quickly to the
soil beneath.

When the caterpillars are full grown, they fall or crawl
to the ground and scatter more or less in search of shelter.
Each attaches itself to any protection it may have found
and changes to a grayish or brownish chrysalis more or less
angular. It remains in this condition for a period that
varies greatly with the weather conditions, averaging
about two weeks.

There are two distinct forms of these butterflies which
vary so greatly that they were once considered separate
species. They are now known, however, to be only seasonal
variations. In New England two broods of the
insect occur, one in spring, the other in summer. The
spring form is called technically Phyciodes tharos tharos.
In this form the under surface of the hind wings is very
distinctly marked with blackish spots. The summer form
is called Phyciodes tharos morpheus. It is noticeably
larger than the spring form and it has very few markings
[Pg 147]
on the under surface of the hind wings.

As it occurs in New England the yearly history of this
little butterfly runs something like this. The spring form
of the adult appears in May and lays eggs upon the aster
leaves. These eggs hatch into caterpillars that feed upon
the aster leaves for several weeks and then change to
chrysalids, remaining in the latter stage ten days or
two weeks. They then come from the chrysalids in the
form of the summer butterflies which begin to appear about
the middle of July and continue to emerge for at least a
month. These lay eggs upon the aster leaves again and
the little caterpillars that hatch from them feed for a few
weeks or until about the last of September. They are
then only partially grown, but they make no attempt to
complete their transformation at this time. Instead they
drop to the ground and go into hibernation, remaining in
this condition until early the following spring. They then
begin feeding again and complete their development in
time to emerge as the spring form of the butterfly in May.

Some very interesting experiments by William H. Edwards
have shown that the smaller, darker spring form of
the butterfly is due to cold. He placed upon ice chrysalids
that would normally produce the summer form and found
that the specimens so treated produced the spring form.

This butterfly is one of the best known examples of the
variation in the yearly cycle due to differences in latitude.
This is readily shown by a brief summary of its life-history,
from north to south.

In the far northern climate of Labrador there is but one
brood a year and the butterflies belong to what I have
[Pg 148]
been calling the spring form. The butterflies appear on
the wing in early summer, lay their eggs upon the aster
leaves, and die. The eggs hatch into caterpillars that
feed for several weeks, then become dormant and remain
in such shelters as they can find until the following spring.
They then change to chrysalids to emerge as butterflies a
little later. There is thus but one brood a year and the
only form of the butterfly is the small, darker colored
variety.

As far south as southern Canada there is a slight variation
in this yearly cycle. The spring form of the butterflies
appears in May and lays eggs. The eggs hatch into
caterpillars; part of these caterpillars mature within a few
weeks, change to chrysalids, and come out in July or
August as the larger summer form of the butterfly, which
in turn lays eggs for the caterpillars that are to winter
over in a dormant condition and mature the following season.
But the significant fact is that not all of the caterpillars
which thus have hatched in spring go through this
cycle. Part of them become dormant when partially
grown and continue dormant through summer, autumn, and
winter, just as they did in Labrador. Then in spring they
develop into the spring form of the butterfly, along with
the caterpillars that have hatched from the eggs laid in
summer. There is thus what is called an overlapping of
the broods.

Farther south, in southern New England, the life-history
is more definitely two-brooded each year, as already
described in an earlier paragraph. Still farther south, in
the region of the Virginias, it is definitely three-brooded,
there being at least two summer broods during the year.
How is it that the instinct to become lethargic lies dormant
[Pg 149]
in the summer broods of caterpillars and shows itself
only in the autumn brood? Is it perhaps due to a reaction
to the colder nights of the later season? If so, possibly
one could get interesting light upon the subject by
experimenting with placing the summer caterpillars temporarily
in an ice chest.

Baltimore Checker-spot (Euphydryas phaeton or Melitaea
phaeton). Expanse 1¾ inches. General color purplish
black with the upper surface marked thus: a marginal
row of red-brown spots between the veins; two rows of
creamy yellow spots inside of the row just mentioned; two
or three small red and two or three small white spots near
front border of each front wing. Under surface checkered
in red-brown and creamy yellow on a blackish background.

Harris's Checker-spot (Cinclidia harrisii or Melitaea
harrisii). Expanse 1¾ inches. This species bears a close
general resemblance to the Silver Crescent. It may be
distinguished by the fact that the middle joint of each
palpus is of uniform size from end to end instead of tapering
toward its outer end. The tibial joint of the first pair
of legs of the male butterfly is very thick. The upper
wing surface is so marked with black that the tawny red
coloring shows only in the middle.

Silver Crescent (Charidryas nycteis, Melitaea nycteis or
Phyciodes nycteis). Expanse 1¾ inches. This species may
be known from Harris's Checker-spot by the fact that the
middle joint of each palpus tapers from the middle to the
tip and that the tibia of each front leg in the male is slender
rather than stout. On the lower surface of the wings
[Pg 150]
there is a narrow yellowish marginal line.

Pearl Crescent (Phyciodes tharos or Melitaea tharos).
Expanse 1½ inches. General color much lighter than
either of the preceding. Terminal joint of each palpus
less than a third as long as the middle joint.

The special characteristic that distinguishes the members
of this important group from the other Nymphs is
the fact that on that portion of the club of each antenna
which has not hairs there are three longitudinal ridges.
The tribe includes a large number of our most familiar
butterflies. Nearly all of them are rather large, with
bright attractive colors. They fly freely along roadsides
and in orchards, fields, and meadows so they are commonly
seen by every one.

The Violet-tip is one of the largest of the Angle-wings, as
well as one of the most beautiful of all our species. It has
a wonderful violet iridescence which is especially marked
on the projecting tip of the hind wing. On fresh specimens,
however, it may be seen practically all over both surfaces
of the wings and in bright sunlight gives them a sheen
of remarkable beauty. The expanded wings measure
nearly two and a half inches, the upper surface being
marked with dark brown upon a ground of orange-brown.
[Pg 151]
The under surface has a bark-like effect in brownish gray
brought about by rather indefinite markings of varying
tone. The most characteristic feature is a distinct silver
semicolon on the middle of the under surface of each hind
wing. This marking closely resembles the Greek interrogation
point and so the species was given the specific
name interrogationis by Fabricius early in the history of
science. It has since often been called the interrogation
butterfly as a translation of its Latin name, but in as much
as the marking on the wings is not at all like the English interrogation
point, this has led to considerable confusion and
people have considered it a misnomer. It has also been
called the Semicolon butterfly which is correct enough so
far as this most characteristic feature is concerned; but it
leads to confusion in connection with the Latin name.
The recent practice seems the better, which is to call it
the Violet-tip butterfly.

The life-history of this butterfly is much like that of the
related species. Briefly summarized, this is its story:

The adult butterflies, more or less worn and faded from
their long hibernation, appear in fields and pastures in
May. They fly for several weeks sipping nectar from
many kinds of spring flowers. The females search for the
leaves of the elm, hop, nettle, false nettle, and perhaps
other related plants on which they deposit their ribbed
eggs either singly or in small groups, it often happening
that one egg will be laid directly on top of another. About
a week later the eggs hatch into small spinose caterpillars
which begin feeding upon the leaves near by. They continue
to feed and grow rather rapidly until they become full
[Pg 152]
size. Each then fastens a bit of pink silk to the stem of
the plant or some other support, in which it entangles its
hind legs and hangs downward to become a chrysalis
which is remarkable for its numerous protuberances and
the beautiful silvery and golden spots along the middle of
the back. Within these chrysalids the change from larva
to butterfly takes place, usually in less than two weeks,
so that this new brood of adults appears on the wing early
in July. Eggs are laid by these for a second brood of
caterpillars that feed upon the host plants in the same way
as the others, and mature as butterflies late in August or
early in September. These butterflies visit the fall
flowers and suck the juices of fallen fruits, until the cold
weather of autumn warns them to seek shelter for the
winter. They now find crevices within the bark of trees
or places in hollow logs or stone piles or other similar
situations, where they close their wings together, so that
only the bark-like under surface shows, and remain quiet
for long periods. They hibernate in this way, coming
forth again the following season to start the cycle for the
new year.

In regions where hops are grown commercially the
chrysalids of these butterflies are often called "hop
merchants." There is a quaint fancy that the price of
the crop varies with the lustre of the golden spots upon
the chrysalids. When these stand out conspicuously,
according to this fancy, the hops are to sell high—bringing
much gold to the owners. When these are inconspicuous
the hops are to sell at a low price, with a corresponding
diminution in the returns. But this fancy does not apply
at all to the chrysalids when they are nearly ready to disclose
the butterfly, for at this time they lose their metallic
[Pg 153]
lustre.

There are two species of butterflies which commonly
lay their eggs upon the hop and which resemble each
other so closely in their earlier stages that they are frequently
confused by ordinary observers. One is the
Violet-tip or Semicolon and the other is the one which has
long been called the Comma. The chrysalids of both are
marked in silver and gold and the variation in the golden
lustre has led hop growers to deduce from them the probable
price of hops. On this account the chrysalids are commonly
called Hop Merchants and the name has been transferred
to the butterflies themselves. (See plate, page 144.)

The Comma is easily distinguished by the conspicuous
silver mark in the middle of the under side of each hind
wing. This bears a striking resemblance to a comma, hence
the name. The butterflies are somewhat smaller than
the Violet-tips and show to a remarkable degree the angularity
in the borders of the wings. The under side is
cleverly marked in imitation of the bark of trees, which
is doubtless of much benefit to the species in eluding observation
during the long months from October until
April, when the butterflies are hibernating in such concealed
shelter as each happens to find. The crevices beneath
loose bark, the openings in fallen logs and hollow
trees, the interspaces in stone piles, as well as the interior
of buildings, all serve this purpose.

Like the other over-wintering butterflies, the specimens
[Pg 154]
that come forth in spring are commonly faded and more
or less frayed from their long wait since bursting forth from
the chrysalis. They may often be seen sunning themselves
on bright days in April and May, resting upon stones or
logs in sheltered spots with their wings fully expanded to
receive the greatest benefit from the rays of sunshine.

When spring has sufficiently advanced for the leaves of
the elm and the hop to be fairly well developed, the mother
butterflies lay their eggs in a curious and characteristic
fashion. Under a lens these eggs look like
tiny barrels with vertical ribs. They are
deposited in columns, the egg first extruded
being attached to the leaf, generally the
under surface, and those which follow are
placed one upon the other sometimes to the
number of six or eight, the group thus making
a miniature column. Now if the egg
which was first laid should hatch before the others, when
the little caterpillar came out it would be very likely to
cause the others to fall off and when they hatched they
would find themselves in what would be to them an impenetrable
forest of weeds and grasses from which there
would be small chance to escape to reach the elm or hop
leaves. To avoid this calamity we find an interesting
adaptation. The egg at the end of the column hatches
first, although it was necessarily the one laid last. The
tiny caterpillar eats its way out of the shell and crawls over
the other eggs to the leaf. Then the others hatch in
succession.

The eggs thus deposited by the hibernating butterflies
are likely to be laid late in May or even early in June.
They hatch into caterpillars less than a week later and
[Pg 155]
these caterpillars feed for about a month, when they
change to the characteristic chrysalids in which they commonly
remain for a week or ten days. They then emerge
as the summer brood of butterflies, most of them in New
England appearing during July. These remain upon the
wing for several weeks, the females laying their eggs upon
the elm and hop leaves. These in turn soon hatch into
caterpillars that change to chrysalids in August and emerge
as butterflies late that month or during September. This
autumn brood of butterflies is quite abundant for a time
but soon seeks the seclusion of winter quarters to remain
until the following April. There are thus two distinct
broods during the year in the Northern states while as far
south as West Virginia there are likely to be three broods.

These caterpillars at first simply eat small holes in the
green substance of the leaf, but as they become larger each
takes up its abode on the under surface of a single leaf and
makes a sheltered tent in somewhat the same fashion that
the Painted Lady does upon the nettle leaf. The caterpillar
eats out more or less of the base of the blade on
each side of the midrib, thus weakening the edges so
that they can be fastened in a tent-like manner by
silken threads. This serves as a resting place from which
it sallies forth to feed, commonly only toward the tip of
the leaf. As a result it often eats itself out of house
and home and has to crawl to another leaf and construct
a new shelter.

While the Comma is generally spoken of as a characteristic
northern species it has a very wide range, being found
from New England to Texas and from the Northwestern
states to the Carolinas. It is one of those species which
have two distinct forms of coloring. The winter form has
[Pg 156]
been given the variety name harrisii. The butterflies of
this brood are decidedly lighter in color than those of the
summer brood to which the variety name dryas has been
given. The latter was originally described as a distinct
species by W. H. Edwards.

The manner in which a larva changes to a chrysalis is
second in interest only to that in which a chrysalis changes
to a butterfly. There are not a great many careful
descriptions by competent observers of this process in
print. One of the best of these is that by W. H. Edwards
in his splendid work on "The Butterflies of North America,"
in which he describes the transformation of the
Comma caterpillar. It is as follows:

"When about to transform, the caterpillar selects a convenient
place on the under side of a projecting rock, or of a
fence rail, or of a weather board of the house, or the midrib
of a hop leaf, and having spun a little button of pale red
silk fixes the hooks of its hind legs therein and hangs suspended,
head downward, in the shape of a fishhook and
remains immovable for the space of twenty-four hours, no
change being perceptible except in the color of the skin,
which becomes partly transparent and loses its dark color
owing to its gradual parting from the chrysalis within.
Suddenly, and to a looker-on without any premonitory
symptom, a rent takes place in the skin at the back of the
head, just wide enough to allow the passage of the chrysalis,
the head of which at once emerges. By a rapid contraction
and expansion of the folds of the abdomen the
larva draws the skin upward, successively discovering the
parts of the fully formed chrysalid until at last, and in
[Pg 157]
scarcely more than one minute of time, the entire skin is
gathered about the hind feet. It now bends itself violently
to disengage the end of the chrysalis, which is long, pointed,
and hard, furnished with several little hooks, meanwhile
retaining its hold of the skin by the folds of its abdomen
until after a severe effort, convulsively reaching out and
feeling in all directions for the object of its search, it
touches the button of silk and at once grasps it with its
hooks and fixes them in it securely. Then by a twisting
motion it manages to disengage the loose skin which falls
to the ground and the chrysalis rests. The whole process
is most interesting to witness and excites renewed wonder
with every repetition at the ingenuity of the means employed
and the delicacy of the instinct displayed. How to
strip off the skin and much more the legs by which the
creature is suspended without losing its hold, and at the
same time to securely fasten the chrysalis, is a problem
that would seem impossible to solve; and yet this little
insect accomplishes it unerringly when to fail would
be certain destruction. And not this species only, but
the larvae of all butterflies which form suspended
chrysalids, embracing the whole of the great family of
Nymphalidae, that is, a large proportion of all the
existing species of butterflies, undergo a similar transformation.

"The chrysalis is now green in color, soft and indefensible,
susceptible to the slightest injury, and for a few
moments the several parts of the future butterfly may be
seen and readily separated; the wings folded close and enveloping
the thorax, the antennae, and proboscis stretched
at length along the back; but very speedily a complete
casing is formed by the exuding from parts of the body of
[Pg 158]
a viscous fluid, which binds together the tender parts and
covers the whole with a coating like varnish. This soon
hardens and the chrysalis is ready to take its chance
against injury."

This butterfly is rather darker colored, especially on its
under side, than the one last discussed. The silver marking
takes on a little more definitely the form of an L than
a comma, and the under surface of the wings is darkened
by many blackish threadlike lines running across the
veins. When at rest with wings closed these butterflies are
very easily overlooked.

Except for a difference in the food plants of the caterpillar,
the life-history of the Gray Comma is very similar
to that of the other Comma. The butterflies hibernate,
and in spring lay eggs singly on the leaves of currants,
gooseberries, and related plants. The eggs soon hatch into
caterpillars that feed upon these leaves but do not make
any suggestion of a nest. They grow slowly and change
into angular chrysalids which disclose the summer brood
of butterflies in July. These lay eggs for another brood
of caterpillars which mature into butterflies in August and
September. These generally go into hibernation before
the middle of October, sometimes choosing simply the
under side of a branch where their dark coloring, so near
like that of the bark, is likely to cause them to be overlooked
by their numerous enemies.

[Pg 159]

The Angle-wings exhibit interesting variations in the
geographical distribution of the species. Some are
characteristic members of the Canadian fauna, others of
the Alleghanian fauna. Some of those which are characteristic
of the former are scattered south well into the
latter, but the Green Comma is distinctively a northern
species—being found abundantly in the great regions
traversed by the trappers of the Hudson Bay Company
and occurring south as far as northern New England, being
very rare as far south as northern Massachusetts. It is
abundant on the higher slopes of the White Mountains.

As one might expect from the short seasons of the far
northern regions in which this butterfly lives, there is only
one brood each year. In consequence the adult butterflies
live a long time. Coming from the chrysalis generally
the first weeks in August, they remain upon the wing a
month or more before they go into hibernation. They
come from their winter quarters in May and commonly
continue alive until late in June. Thus it is evident that
many of these butterflies must live at least ten months as
adults, an extraordinary longevity for one of these frail
creatures.

The caterpillars are known to feed upon the foliage of
several kinds of plants. These include alder, currant,
gooseberry, willow, and black birch, the last two named apparently
being those most often chosen.

Mr. S. H. Scudder called attention to the fact that these
butterflies are able to make a slight clicking noise as they
start into flight. He described his experience in these
[Pg 160]
words:

"Starting up a pair just at my feet on the Mt. Washington
carriage road one day, I stopped abruptly to see
whether they would settle again. After flying a few yards
away to escape the cause of their disturbance, one turned
back and dashed straight at my face, turning only when
within three or four inches of my nose, and then suddenly
whisked off with a distinct click as it did so, snapping its
fingers, as it were, in my very face. There was no sort
of doubt about this click, though if it had not been made
so close at hand it would probably not have been heard.
But other butterflies in the tropics have long been known
to emit sounds like this, which can be heard at a considerable
distance; others, including some of our own butterflies,
are known to produce a rustling sound by the rubbing
of one wing upon another; and movements of one sort and
another have been so often observed, as of the opposite
rubbing of the erect wings in most Lycaenids, and the
tremulous agitation of the wings in many different sorts
when excited, as to leave little doubt that sounds made
by themselves and for the advantage of warning their
brethren play a not unimportant part in the lives of butterflies."

[Pg 161]

Among the weedy plants which have been intimately
associated with mankind ever since his slow upward
progress in civilization began, the nettle has probably
played almost as important a part as the thistle. While
it lacks the winged seeds of the latter it is even more
effectually protected from the attacks of vertebrate
enemies on account of its irritating hairs. At any rate,
nettles of various kind are widely distributed over the
earth's surface, and consequently it is not surprising that
the Nettle Butterfly or Red Admiral should be almost as
cosmopolitan as the Thistle butterfly. The two species
are closely related in structure and habits and the life-history
of the one is very similar to that of the other.

About the middle of May one may see in open fields and
along sunny highways these Red Admirals flitting from
flower to flower, or stopping occasionally upon green
leaves in search of opportunities to lay their eggs. Should
you observe them closely you might notice that some of
them seemed frayed and worn while others seemed perfectly
bright and fresh.

Late in May and early in June these butterflies deposit
their eggs upon the leaves of the nettles. As a rule only
one or a few eggs are laid on a leaf, but when the butterflies
are abundant many leaves upon the plant may become
infested. About a week later the egg hatches into
a larva, which is likely to eat more or less of the empty
shell before crawling up the stem of the plant to the unfolding
buds at the top. Here it makes its first nest by
webbing together the still closed upper surface of a leaf
not yet unfolded. It is thus able to furnish itself with
protection from weather and enemies, as well as an abundant
supply of succulent food. It remains in this first
home about a week, then it casts its skin, still within its
protection, and stays until it has recovered after the
process. It now migrates to another larger, expanded
[Pg 162]
leaf where it very cleverly proceeds to construct its second
nest. In order to do this it weakens the midrib at the
base of the leaf by biting nearly through it. Then it cuts
a hole in the blade of the leaf at the base in such a way that
the margins are made to droop, so that they can be fastened
together with silk to form a little tent. We thus
have a tent-like nest hanging down from the stem of the
leaf on the under side of which the caterpillar will find
shelter, while near at hand is the green tissue of the inner
surface of the leaf waiting to be eaten. This improvised
tent serves as the home during this second stage of the
caterpillar. Here also the second moult commonly takes
place, after which the caterpillar migrates to a new leaf
and constructs its third nest. The rest of the story of
the caterpillar's life consists of similar chapters. After
each moult a new tent is formed and even the chrysalis is
often hung within the last one.

The eggs which were laid late in May develop into
butterflies during July. These in turn lay eggs for the
second brood of caterpillars most of which develop into
butterflies late in August or early in September, but
some of which apparently remain in the chrysalis stage
unchanged throughout the winter, and mature as butterflies
about the middle of the following May. This is the
explanation of the fact mentioned at the beginning of this
discussion that one can find late in spring and early in
summer some butterflies which seem worn and frayed
while others seem perfectly fresh. They are all the
progeny of the midsummer brood of the previous summer,
but some of them have been living as full-grown butterflies
through eight long months of tempestuous weather, while
others have just been disclosed from the protecting walls
[Pg 163]
of the chrysalis.

The world-wide distribution of this butterfly is shown
in the statement that it occurs throughout Europe, and
in North America from Newfoundland to Cuba and
Guatemala. It is a safe guess that it is found in practically
all localities where nettles grow.

It is not alone the association between a butterfly caterpillar
and its host plant which has been brought about
during the long ages through which one generation has
been succeeding another, but there have been also many
developments of similar associations between the caterpillars
and their parasitic enemies. The Red Admiral is a
good example of such a development. During its long
growth as a species it has been exposed to attack by vast
numbers of tiny foes which live at the expense of other
insects. Several of these foes have found in the bodies
of the caterpillars good opportunities for growth, so that
now the Red Admiral, as a species, has to reckon with
many enemies among these tiny parasites. The interaction
between caterpillar host and uninvited parasitic
guest has much to do with the great irregularity in the
numbers of the butterflies. It is simply another example
of that complicated struggle for existence, by means of
which nature keeps ever a fairly even balance of her
myriad forces.

One of the most interesting phases of the study of butterflies
is to learn how often they take advantage in their
life-history of any peculiarity of the food plant which has
[Pg 164]
a protective value. The Painted Beauty is an excellent
illustration of this. The caterpillar feeds upon the leaves
of the common Everlasting or Gnaphalium. This is an
abundant and widely distributed plant, found along roadsides
and in fields and pastures. It is notable for the
woolly covering on stems, leaves, and flowers—this dry,
hairy surface being so evident that the flowers will apparently
continue in blossom when they have dried, hence
its common name Everlasting or, as the French call a
similar flower, Immortelle. (See plate, page 161.)

The utilization of the hairs upon the leaves is begun by
the mother butterfly when she lays her egg upon the upper
surface, pushing it down among the hairs so that it is almost
concealed. Should you be fortunate enough to find one
of these eggs you would see that it is a small, yellowish
green object, looking like a tiny barrel with several
vertical ribs upon its surface. A few days after the egg
is laid it hatches into a minute caterpillar that begins eating
off the hairs where they are attached to the leaf, in
such a way that it soon has a free space beneath a bunch
of these hairs which it has more or less matted together
by means of silken thread. The little caterpillar has
thus provided for itself a protecting nest that effectually
conceals it from birds or other enemies. It now begins
feeding upon the succulent surface of the rather thick leaf,
where it has removed the hairs. After several days of
such feeding it moults, still under the shelter of its hairy
covering. This process of moulting and feeding continues
for two or three weeks, the caterpillar occasionally making
a new covering as needed for its food supply.

The later nests are likely to be made by folding two or
three leaves together, binding them with silken thread.
[Pg 165]
The caterpillar in doing this takes advantage of the fact
that the terminal leaves are vertical before they have
spread out, so that it is a comparatively simple matter to
make a little house by binding their edges together with
silken threads. The larva feeds upon the inner walls of
the house it thus constructs, and as it becomes larger the
buds and blossoms are also utilized for food.

When the caterpillar is full grown it thus finds itself
fairly well concealed within a very substantial sort of a
home. Many of them have the apparent good sense to
realize that this is as safe a place as they are likely to find
for shelter during the period of the chrysalis. So the
caterpillar makes the nest especially secure near the centre
of what might be called the ceiling and in this web it
entangles its hind legs and hangs downward, preparatory
to changing to the chrysalis. A few hours later the skin
splits apart and is wriggled off, leaving the chrysalis
hanging in place of the caterpillar. About a fortnight
later the butterfly emerges and crawls at once to the outside
of the nest, where it rests quietly while its wings expand
and its tissues harden. Then it flies away in search
of the nectar of thistles and many other flowers which it
visits freely.

This Painted Beauty is a wonderful example of harmonious
coloring. The general tone of the upper surface of
the wings is fulvous, with some distinct white markings
on a blackish background at the outer angles of the front
pair. There is also more or less blackish shading on the
base and margin of all the wings with an indistinct row of
about four dots, more or less run together, near the margin
of the hind wing. The under surface of the wings is even
more beautiful than the upper, and furnishes a striking
[Pg 166]
example of flower-picturing. There is a little fulvous
background near the middle of the front wings, but the
rest of the surface is spotted and striped with blotches
and circles of gray and brown in a most intricate design.
On each front wing near the outer angle are three indistinct
eye-spots in a row, and on the outer half of each hind wing
there are two bull's-eye circles, one smaller than the other,
which form the most conspicuous feature in the marking of
the insect.

When full grown the caterpillars are a little more than
an inch long with a general color of velvety black, marked
with fine yellow lines and more or less covered with bristly
spines. There is also a distinct row of whitish spots along
each side beginning a short distance back of the head.

This is a widely distributed butterfly, occurring from
Canada to the Southern states and beyond. In most
northern regions it seems to be two-brooded, the butterflies
commonly hibernating as adults; but sometimes the
winter is passed in the condition of the chrysalis. Along
its southern range there are three and perhaps four broods
each year.

Our story of this beautiful butterfly ought really to begin
with that of one of the most successful plants in the world.
Now a plant is successful from its own point of view when
it is able to multiply abundantly in many different sorts
of situations and to spread easily over a large area. The
[Pg 167]
plant I have in mind is the thistle, which from time immemorial
has been one of the commonest neighbors of
man. It is found over the whole habitable globe, as well
as in many parts which are scarcely habitable. It has
many advantages in its struggle for life. The roots penetrate
deeply into the soil; the thickened, spiny leaves are
so protected by their juices and their spines that they are
molested by very few enemies; the flower stalks are also
clothed in a similar armature; and the great heads of
flowers are surrounded with prickly involucres that generally
prevent their being eaten by browsing animals or even
by phytophagous insects. The brightly colored blossoms
are abundantly provided with nectar and pollen, and they
attract great numbers of bees, moths, and butterflies, in
order to bring about cross-fertilization. But all of these
advantages are of little significance so far as wide distribution
is concerned, compared with the feathery seeds
which are produced in such abundance and so generally
scattered by the slightest breath of wind that the word
thistle-down has come into general use to express a lightly
moving object. These airy seeds have been riding on the
wings of the wind all over the surface of the earth for untold
millions of years. Doubtless during severe storms
they may be carried thousands of miles, and it is easy to
think that one of them might readily go half-way round
the world before it found a resting place. Wherever such
a seed alighted and found the condition of a moist soil and
slight protection, it would be likely soon to spring into
growth and to start anew the development of its ancient
race.

The thistle, however, has not been entirely unmolested
during its aeons of existence. There has been developing
[Pg 168]
along with it one of the most beautiful of our butterflies
which has received various scientific names and the common
name of the Painted Lady, although it is also often
called the Thistle Butterfly and the Cosmopolite, which
latter title perhaps is to be preferred. This butterfly,
however, can scarcely be considered a troublesome enemy
of its host plant, for it is seldom sufficiently abundant
to injure the thistle appreciably. The relation between
the two is rather suggestive of that mutual toleration by
which two living things develop together with advantage
at least to one and without serious disadvantage to the
other. The universal distribution of the food plant has
led to a like distribution of the butterfly. Consequently
the Thistle butterfly has long been recognized as the most
cosmopolitan species of its group. (See plate, page 176.)

Aside from the wide distribution of its food plant and
possibly correlated with it through the diversity of climatic
conditions under which the insect has developed,
this butterfly is remarkable for its powers of flight. Many
instances are known where it has been taken at sea long
distances from land. This is due not only to the propensity
of the individual for taking aërial journeys, but
also to the fact that this is one of the butterflies which has
the instinct to congregate in swarms and to migrate long
distances when thus congregated. In 1879 such a flock
started from Africa and migrated to Europe.

One of the most remarkable things about this butterfly
is our ignorance of what it does with itself in winter.
American entomologists are agreed that the adult butterfly
hibernates, but where it does so seems not to be
known. Here is an excellent opportunity for some young
naturalist to go scouting, hunting in board piles, under
[Pg 169]
loose bark, or with a flashlight searching the interiors of
hollow trees to find between November and April living
specimens of this butterfly. Such a discovery would be a
real service to science and should at once be made known
through some scientific journal. In Europe there seems
to be a belief that the insect hibernates partially at least
in the condition of the chrysalis.

While we may not know just where the butterflies have
been throughout the winter, we do know that in southern
New England they begin to be seen in fields and along
roadsides about the middle of May. Many of the specimens
then have a ragged appearance which is a pretty
good indication that they came from the chrysalis the fall
before and have been lying concealed through all the weeks
since. These butterflies lay their small greenish, barrel-shaped
eggs on the leaves of the thistle. The mother
butterfly chooses the location rather carefully and deposits
only one egg upon a leaf. The butterflies continue
thus to visit flowers and to lay eggs until about the middle
of June when apparently they perish.

About a week after the egg has thus been laid, it
hatches into a small spiny caterpillar which does not take
the trouble to devour its egg shell as so many other caterpillars
do. Instead it crawls around to the lower side of
the leaf and gnaws off enough of the silken surface of the
leaf to furnish material for making a webby covering,
the leaf particles being woven together by threads from the
caterpillar's mouth. In this way the little creature soon
provides itself with a snug enclosure which serves it as a
temporary home. It remains in this home much of the
[Pg 170]
time when not eating, going out occasionally to feed upon
the green tissues of the adjacent parts of the leaf.

This first home of the young caterpillar, made as it is as a
flat blanket upon a flat surface, can be used only by a
very small larva. Consequently, the caterpillar soon finds
these quarters too cramped and it deserts them to make a
new home with larger space. This second nest is commonly
made on the upper surface of a leaf, the edges of
which are likely to be more or less drawn together and
other supports connected from other leaves or a near-by
stem. The caterpillar continues to use this nest number
two as a place for remaining when not feeding and for
protection during the process of moulting. But even this
larger nest is likely to be given up about the time the
caterpillar becomes half grown, and a third nest is begun
in the upper part of the plant. This is likely to be very
commodious, its walls being made of leaves or stems
bound together by a silken web. Within this the caterpillar
completes its growth, going out and in through one or
more doors when it wishes to feed. Sometimes it even remains
within this nest during the process of changing to
the chrysalis, hanging downward from the upper part in
much the same way that the caterpillar of the Painted
Beauty butterfly does. In case it leaves the nest when
fully developed it generally finds a place near-by in which to
pupate.

About ten days after the caterpillar has changed to a
chrysalis it changes again to the adult butterfly. In
southern New England these butterflies appear about the
middle of July and lay eggs soon afterward, these eggs
hatching into butterflies that change to chrysalids and
change again to butterflies late in August or early in September.
[Pg 171]
This autumn brood doubtless furnishes the
butterflies that will be seen upon the wing the following
May, so that it is pretty certain that they must find some
shelter in which to pass the intervening months.

The full-grown caterpillar of the Thistle butterfly is
about one and a quarter inches long and of a general
yellowish color, more or less marked with blackish as well
as with paler lines of color. There are many transverse
rows of spines along the segments, each yellowish spine
having a circle of smaller ones at the top.

Notwithstanding its fondness for thistles, these caterpillars
occasionally feed upon various other plants. One
might readily expect them to be able to live upon other
composites upon which they are found, but it seems a bit
strange that they should be recorded as being "especially
fond of mallows."

One of the most scholarly students of American insects
has happily called the butterflies "the frail children
of the air." It seems a fitting term for creatures so
ethereal that they are readily wafted on the wings of the
slightest breeze and so delicate in structure that they are
likely to be sadly mutilated by the lightest touch of human
hand. Such creatures one would say belong to regions of
perpetual summer and have no place in the blizzard-swept
winters of our Northern states.

Yet if one goes into the snow-clad woods during one of
the midwinter thaws one is likely to see in every open glade
several dark-colored butterflies flitting from tree to tree, or
[Pg 172]
resting with expanded wings in the sunniest spots. These
butterflies obviously have endured the coldest weather and
if they are to survive until another season must continue to
endure still more. This species is commonly called the
Mourning-cloak butterfly—not a particularly happy name
for so beautiful an insect. In England it has the more
suggestive title of Camberwell Beauty, and country boys
are said to call it the Yellow Edge butterfly. Its general
life-story has already been told on pages 112-115.

The caterpillars of the Mourning-cloak butterflies are
restricted to comparatively few food plants. In regions
where they are not especially abundant, they are likely to
be found upon willow, poplar, or elm. In general, as many
observations indicate, they are as likely to be found upon
any one of these food plants as upon either of the other
two; but in certain localities where they become especially
abundant it seems that they are more likely to occur upon
the elm. On this account they have been called the
Spiny Elm caterpillars. There is considerable evidence to
show that they prefer the American elm to other species of
the genus, although in the case of willow and poplar there
seems to be little if any preference as to the species.

Miss Caroline G. Soule has seen the butterflies depositing
their eggs upon the white and canoe birch, and it has
been recorded as feeding in Labrador and Europe upon a
species of birch. There is one record of the caterpillars
having been found feeding upon the hackberry, and also of
their having fed greedily upon the leaves of rose bushes, and
still another of their having almost defoliated a pear tree.
Linden and nettle are also included in the European lists
of the food plants of this species. (See plates, pages 145, 176.)

It is evident, however, that all of these, except the three
[Pg 173]
first named—willow, poplar, and elm—are to be regarded
as exceptional cases, and that the normal food of the
species is the foliage of a plant belonging to one of these
three genera.

It has generally been supposed that this species is
double-brooded in central and southern New England,
the butterflies of the first brood appearing early in July.
These are said to deposit eggs which hatch into caterpillars
that mature into butterflies early in September. These
butterflies live through the winter, laying eggs the following
spring.

It is very probable that as far north as southern New
Hampshire the species is commonly single-brooded.
During one season when the caterpillars were unusually
abundant, a very careful watch was kept for the second
brood in New Hampshire and Vermont by several competent
observers. Only one colony of caterpillars was
found and this was at Durham in the southern part of New
Hampshire near the seacoast. Consequently, it seems safe
to conclude that in northern and central New England, at
least, a single brood is the rule rather than the exception.
This involves the conclusion that the butterflies seen upon
the wing early in autumn are the same ones that developed
in July, and that these same butterflies remain
alive through the winter and until, in the following May,
they lay their eggs. Thus there is a period of ten months
of existence in the butterfly state, an extraordinary length
of time for a butterfly to live.

To a large extent the butterflies disappear in August,
and the question arises as to what becomes of them. Our
observations lead to the conclusion that they go into summer
quarters similar to those which they seek out for
[Pg 174]
winter shelter. Apparently they fly about for a few days
after coming from the chrysalis and then retire to cool
woods, where under the side of a log or beneath the loose
bark of a dead tree they settle down and to all appearances
go to sleep. The instinct to remain quiet is very strong in
these butterflies. In taking the accompanying photographs,
I found that even shortly after coming from the
chrysalis the butterflies when disturbed would fold their
wings with the antennae between them, and drawing the
legs against the body would lie quietly on their sides for a
long time. These same butterflies would also hang downward
from a limb by the hour in the hibernating position as
shown in plate opposite page 32.

In the cooler weather of early autumn, the butterflies
come from their retreats and fly about in the sunshine.
They are especially likely to be seen along the borders of
woods or in open glades. At this time they love the sunshine,
and will settle in a sunny place to bask in it.

When the warm days no longer tempt them abroad, the
Mourning-cloaks seek shelter in many sorts of situations—under
loose bark, in hollow trees, under culverts and
bridges, in woodpiles, in crevices of rocks, or alongside
logs lying on the ground. In such retreats they remain
until the sunshine of spring again calls them forth.

Prof. G. H. Parker's observations indicate that
these butterflies are very sensitive to changes of temperature,
and he has seen the interesting action of the butterflies
crawling into their hiding places, finding that this
takes place each day after they had been sunning themselves.
Thus he writes:

[Pg 175]
"These butterflies remain during cool spring nights in
places similar to those in which they hibernate in winter,
viz., in openings in stone walls, in old out-houses, in openings
under the bark of trees, etc. They retire to these
places with considerable regularity, so that in the open
woods, where dozens of individuals may have been seen
flitting about, all may have disappeared a quarter of an
hour later. I have watched their retreat with some care.
On a clear afternoon in early April I took my stand in a
woodland where many Mourning-cloak butterflies were
on the wing. They continued actively flying about till
approximately four o'clock, when I began to notice a diminution
in their numbers. By a quarter past four not a
butterfly was to be seen. During the fifteen minutes from
four o'clock on I followed two to their hiding places. One
alighted on the front of a fallen tree and without expanding
its wings crept immediately into a large crack in the bark.
The second settled on a stone fence and crept into a hole
between some loose stones. The period during which this
occurred was marked not so much by a diminution of
light as by a rapid fall of temperature."

That the habit of lethargy in cold and of resting upon the
bark of trees is practically universal with this species is
shown by a statement quoted by H. G. Adams in his book,
"Beautiful Butterflies," published in England in 1871.
The writer quoted says: "In a wood on the summit of the
Drachenfels, when the wind was rather keen, I found numbers
resting on the backs of fallen trees in a state of stupor.
They made no attempts to escape and when thrown into
the air their wings barely opened or flapping feebly eased
their fall or enabled them to seek repose on the stem of a
rotten trunk."

[Pg 176]

In many books this species is spoken of by its English
name Camberwell Beauty. It is so called because it was
first observed in the neighborhood of Camberwell in the
county of Surrey, England. It seems that in that
country it is a very rare species. This is a bit curious considering
the fact that in America it is so extremely abundant.
In his attractive little book quoted above, Mr.
Adams begins the discussion of this species with this
statement: "This is the crowning glory of the British
butterfly collector's cabinet, and a happy man is he who
gets a perfect specimen of an insect which is at once so rare
and so beautiful." And later in the same discussion is this
further statement concerning the scarcity of the species:
"In neither the larva nor the pupa state has the insect been
found, we believe, in this country where its appearance
occurs, except just here and there a single specimen or two,
at long and uncertain intervals. About eighty years ago
it was seen in many parts of the kingdom and again in
1819, but not since then although almost every year one or
more specimens are taken or seen."

A curious fact in regard to the Mourning-cloak, as found
in England, is that the border around the wings seems to be
much more generally white than it is with us. J. O.
Westwood in his book on British butterflies describes the
margin as of a white or whitish color and other writers
speak of the same fact. Kirby in his "Butterflies and
Moths" makes this comparative statement: "The border
is whitest in British specimens, and perhaps yellowest in
American ones." He speaks of it also as one of the
rarest British species. It is sometimes called by the
common name the White Border and also occasionally
the Grand Surprise, appellations which bear out what has
been said above both in regard to the color of the border
and the rarity of the insect.

[Pg 177]
The Mourning-cloaks subsist upon a considerable variety
of liquid food which they suck through their long
tongues. In spring, when they first come from their
winter quarters, they visit the stumps of recently cut
trees and suck the exuding sap, a habit which they continue
whenever opportunity offers. Mr. W. F. Fiske
has noticed that they commonly sip the sap of maple
twigs where the squirrels have gnawed the bark. A little
later they visit the willow catkins to suck the nectar
secreted by these blossoms, and still later they hover about
the delicate blossoms of the mayflower, or trailing arbutus,
for a similar purpose. Probably many other flowers are
thus rifled of their sweets, although this butterfly seems
to be a less regular visitor to flowers than are many of its
allies. A little later, when the aphids, or plant-lice, have
become sufficiently abundant so that the so-called "honey
dew" is to be found upon the infested shrubs, these Mourning-cloaks
sometimes sip the liquid sweet from the surface
of the leaves. In April and May they occasionally visit
the flowers of moosewood, and later in the season have
been observed upon the blossoms of the common milkweed.
From the time the early apples ripen these butterflies
may often be seen beneath the orchard trees, sipping
the liquids of the fallen and decaying fruit.

One fine spring morning I came upon a Mourning-cloak
depositing a cluster of eggs upon a willow twig. She was
[Pg 178]
so busily engaged that I was able to draw near and watch
the operation for some time before she flew away. As
soon as she was gone I was much interested to see a tiny
parasitic fly running eagerly over the newly laid eggs, and
this fly also was so busily interested in her work that I was
able to cut the twig off and sit down to observe at leisure
through a lens the actions of the insect. I dictated to a
companion my notes of these observations and so was
able to get rather a complete record of the process of oviposition.

The tiny fly would stop over one of the butterfly eggs,
holding its body vertical with the hind legs far back
and the other legs so straightened out as to hold the front
of the body high up. Then it would insert its tiny ovipositor
through the egg shell and proceed to deposit an
egg of its own inside of the larger egg of the butterfly.
At least it seemed a safe assumption that this was what
happened although of course it was impossible to see the
smaller egg at the time. While thus engaged the antennae
of the tiny fly were bent directly downward to the egg
beneath. In about a minute the fly withdrew its ovipositor
and after running around for a few seconds again
settled upon another egg and repeated the operation.
Then it tried again on a third egg, after which I got out
my watch and began timing the process. These are the
results in the case of the next dozen eggs that were laid.
It required:

94

sec.

to

lay

egg

No.

4.

Then

fly

moved

around

26

sec.

120

"

"

"

"

"

5.

"

"

"

"

27

"

83

"

"

"

"

"

6.

"

"

"

"

20

"

92

"

"

"

"

"

7.

"

"

"

"

22

"

75

"

"

"

"

"

8.

"

"

"

"

40

"

90

"

"

"

"

"

9.

"

"

"

"

42

"

102

"

"

"

"

"

10.

"

"

"

"

15

"

120

"

"

"

"

"

11.

"

"

"

"

21

"

120

"

"

"

"

"

12.

"

"

"

"

18

"

60

"

"

"

"

"

13.

"

"

"

"

25

"

120

"

"

"

"

"

14.

"

"

"

"

25

"

60

"

"

"

"

"

15.

"

"

"

"

50

"

[Pg 179]
It thus required an average of about two minutes per
egg for the laying of these fifteen eggs. I then caught the
little fly and sent her to Dr. L. O. Howard, our greatest
authority on this group of insects, to learn the name of the
parasite. He identified it as Telenomus graptae, a well-known
parasite of the eggs of the Mourning-cloak and
related butterflies.

The most interesting thing about this observation was
the fact that the little fly had apparently begun its operation
before the mother butterfly had finished laying her
cluster of eggs. There were thousands of willow twigs
in the immediate vicinity. How did this tiny creature
arrive at this particular place at the particular moment
when from its own point of view it was most needed?
Had it been riding around upon the body of the butterfly
waiting for the time when she should lay the eggs? Or
was it attracted to them from somewhere in the immediate
vicinity? That this early arrival probably takes place
generally is indicated by the fact that a similar observation
had been made in the White Mountains by Prof.
C. W. Woodworth.

The history of the egg parasite after the laying of the
egg seems to be comparatively simple. It soon hatches
into a tiny larva that develops within the shell at the expense
[Pg 180]
of the contents. It finally changes to a pupa which
in turn changes to the little fly that gnaws a hole through
the egg shell and emerges to the outer world.

After hatching from the egg, the Mourning-cloak caterpillars
are also subject to the attacks of various parasites.
One of these is quite minute, not a great deal larger
than the egg parasite. It is a tiny four-winged fly which
deposits many eggs in a single caterpillar. The eggs
hatch into tiny maggots that grow at the expense of the
caterpillar, finally killing it and changing to four-winged
flies again. As many as 145 of these parasites have been
known to emerge from a single dead caterpillar. These
little flies are called Chalcids by entomologists.

There is still another group of four-winged flies, some
of which attack the Antiopa caterpillars. These are
much larger than the Chalcid flies and are called Ichneumon
flies. In the case of these, only one or two parasites
develop in each caterpillar or chrysalis.

In addition to these various four-winged flies, there are
certain two-winged flies, called Tachinid flies, that develop
at the expense of the caterpillars. In New Hampshire,
during recent years, these appear to have been the
most abundant parasites of these insects. An egg is laid
on the skin of the caterpillar by a two-winged fly, similar
in general appearance to the figure below. The contents
of this egg shortly develop into a tiny grub that burrows
through the egg shell and the skin of the caterpillar into
the inside of the body. Here it remains, absorbing the
body substance of its host and gradually increasing in
size. In a few weeks it becomes fully developed in this
[Pg 181]
grub state. By this time the caterpillar has become sluggish
from the effects of the parasite. If the branch upon
which it feeds is disturbed, the other caterpillars are
likely to crawl away, but the enfeebled
victim remains in its place.

Shortly after becoming full grown,
the Tachinid grub breaks through the
skin of the dying caterpillar and, falling
to the ground, changes to a peculiar
pupa; the outer skin of the grub turns
brown and becomes hard, forming a protective covering
for the body inside. A week or two later the insect
undergoes another change and emerges as a two-winged
Tachinid fly, like the one that laid the egg some weeks
before.

Besides those insects that develop on the inside of the
bodies of these Antiopa caterpillars there are other
insect enemies which attack them from the outside and
devour them bodily. The most notable of these, perhaps,
is a large beetle commonly called the Caterpillar Hunter;
it is known to entomologists as Calosoma scrutator. This
is a very active insect, with large strong jaws, that runs
rapidly about in search of victims. In some cases it
has been observed while destroying many of the Antiopa
larvae.

In the Southern states a common reddish wasp—a species
of Polistes—has also been observed attacking these
caterpillars, and there are probably various other insects
that destroy them, although definite observations showing
this have not been recorded.

[Pg 182]
The Antiopa caterpillars are such spiny creatures that
comparatively few birds attack them. They are devoured,
however, by the two species of cuckoos—the
yellow-billed and black-billed—and it is probable that
they are sometimes killed by Baltimore orioles and various
other birds. They are also greedily devoured by toads,
but of course they do not often come within the reach of
these useful animals.

Even the adult butterflies of this species have to be on
the lookout for enemies. During the long months of their
life many of them probably succumb to the attacks of
birds or other creatures. I have seen but one such
tragedy. While riding along a country highway with a
bird-loving friend one spring day we saw a male Maryland
yellow-throat flit by with a Mourning-cloak in his mouth.
The bird lit on a fence, from which I startled him so that
he dropped the butterfly, a worn and faded, half-dead
specimen. The places where the bird held the insect were
indicated by missing pieces of the wings.

This beautiful butterfly is one of the most distinctive
of all our species. It is of moderate size, its wings rarely
expanding more than two inches, and it has sufficiently
irregular outlines to indicate its relationship with the Angle-wings.
The most striking feature of the upper surface
is the broad band of orange-brown extending clear across
both wings a little inside the border. The remaining surface
is a darker brown marked with two orange-brown
[Pg 183]
spots near the front margin of each front wing and having
scattered iridescent scales which show plainly under a lens.
The suggestion of the coloring of a tortoise-shell is easily
seen in these rich brown tones. The under surface is a
wonderful illustration of protective coloring. With wings
closed and resting against the bark of trees or lying beneath
the trees among fallen leaves, it would require a
keen eye to detect the insect. (See plates, pages 160-161.)

The American Tortoise-shell is distinctly a northern
species. North of latitude forty-three degrees it seems to
occur practically from ocean to ocean, extending far up toward
the arctic region. It is commonly found in British
America as far north as Fort Simpson in latitude sixty-one
degrees. There are specimens in the British Museum
collected by the explorer Ross in arctic America, and there
are many in our own National Museum collected in the
Hudson Bay region by various American explorers. In
New England the species is abundant at times in New
Hampshire, Vermont, and Maine. In the vicinity of New
York City and Buffalo, New York, it is rather rare. And
south of this latitude it is found chiefly at the higher elevations
in mountainous districts. As a rule it is likely to
vary in numbers from year to year, sometimes being extremely
abundant while more commonly it is rather rare.
These are the same sorts of fluctuations that we find in the
case of the Mourning-cloak, the American tent caterpillar,
and various other insects whose larvae live in colonies.
The variation is probably due to the fact that
when the caterpillars become unusually abundant they become
correspondingly conspicuous and so provide a shining
mark that is soon discovered by their insect enemies or
by various fungous diseases.

[Pg 184]

In its manner of laying eggs this butterfly differs from
most others. The great majority of our familiar species
lay their eggs one in a place or possibly two or three near
together. Some species deposit several in a group, while
some, like the Mourning-cloak, may lay two or three dozen
in a cluster. Very few, however, deposit hundreds in a
bunch. Two of these are the Baltimore and this American
Tortoise-shell. In the case of the latter the eggs are
loosely laid, hundreds together, upon the leaves of the
common stinging nettle. Probably each female can deposit
six or eight hundred eggs. In less than a week the
eggs hatch into minute blackish caterpillars that feed upon
the tender tissues of the leaf upon which they were born and
then migrate together toward the top of the plant. In
their habits they are quite similar to the caterpillars of the
Mourning-cloak. As each walks it spins from its mouth a
silken thread and the combined effect of hundreds of these
threads is to make a noticeable silken web over the leaves.
The caterpillars remain in colonies, feeding together from
day to day and gradually denuding the upper branches of
the nettle plant, leaving an unsightly silken web as a
memento of their presence. This webbing is very suggestive
of the similar result left behind by a colony of
Mourning-cloak caterpillars upon the twigs of elm or
poplar.

When about half grown these caterpillars are likely to
scatter more or less in accidental groups which may make
small shelter tents from the larger leaves. In each little
nest there may be four or five or more of the dark-colored
caterpillars. From these shelter tents they sally forth to
[Pg 185]
feed upon the adjacent leaves and a little later become full
grown as caterpillars. Each now wanders away and finding
such shelter as it is able to, spins a button of silk and
becomes a chrysalis. It remains in this condition but a
short time before it emerges again as the beautiful butterfly.

This species is commonly reputed to have three broods a
year, hibernating both as a butterfly and as a chrysalis.
It has been suggested, however, by Mr. W. F. Fiske, one of
our most painstaking entomologists who has studied the
butterflies of New Hampshire for many years, that it is
more probably double-brooded with a period of aestivation
during the later weeks of summer. This seems a very
probable condition and it is to be hoped that some observer
will make such a careful study of this species as to settle
the point definitely.

In the case of many butterflies the distribution of the
species coincides with the distribution of the food plant.
This American Tortoise-shell, however, is perhaps the
exception that may prove the rule, for its southward limit
is far north of the southern range of the stinging nettle.
Evidently, it is a species which has developed in adjustment
to the cool climate of northern regions or high altitude,
and it does not easily adapt itself to a warmer
territory.

During bright days in March and April one is likely to
find two kinds of butterflies on the wing in open glades of
[Pg 186]
the woods. One is the familiar Mourning-cloak and the
other is the Compton Tortoise—the latter generally much
less abundant than the former. Both make the most of
the brief periods of sunshine and quickly disappear when
the sky is overcast.

The Compton Tortoise butterflies which are thus abroad
in early spring have been in hibernation since October.
They are helping to carry the species over from one season
to another, and as the days become longer and warmer
they appear on the wing more and more, seeking such
liquid food as the field and forest yields during the days of
early spring. The sap exuding from holes in bark made by
woodpeckers, or from the tappings of the maple trees by
man, the nectar of willow catkins, the moisture of roadside
pools—these help to yield a precarious sustenance to
these butterflies after their long winter fast. They remain
upon the wing week after week, while spring slowly progresses
in the northern regions they inhabit. When at
last the leaves push out on their food trees—willow, birch,
and elm—the females lay their eggs and then, having
lived to what for a butterfly is a ripe old age, they die,
after nearly ten months of adult existence.

Apparently the eggs are laid in clusters on the twigs, although
this seems to be one of the many facts about butterflies
awaiting observation by some careful student.
The caterpillars feed together in small colonies but make no
nest. They become full grown in about a month. They
are then nearly two inches long with spinous, greenish
bodies, striped with lighter lines. Some change to chrysalids
about the middle of June and ten days later change
again to butterflies, the first of which appear early in July
while others continue to emerge for nearly a month.

[Pg 187]
These butterflies may be seen rather frequently from
midsummer on, visiting various flowers and sipping the
juices from decaying fruits beneath the trees. At times
they seem to disappear in August to reappear in October, a
fact which has led some observers to suggest that there is a
second brood. The caterpillars of this brood, however,
have never been observed and a much more probable explanation
has been made by Mr. W. F. Fiske who studied
the butterflies of New Hampshire carefully for many
years. He found that in the hot summer weather this
butterfly goes into a seclusion similar to that of its winter
rest—that is, it aestivates in summer and hibernates in
winter. "The possibility that the October J-album did
not represent a second brood," writes Mr. Fiske, "was
rendered almost a certainty by repeated observations
which failed to disclose a single specimen approximating in
freshness to average August individuals, and the question
of their whereabouts during the interim was unexpectedly
answered one warm August day by my finding several
snugly packed away under the shingles on an old roof. The
theory of the aestivation of the butterflies of this group
will explain a good many points hitherto obscure in the life
histories of the other species."

In October these butterflies seek their winter quarters,
finding them in woods and groves. Apparently they commonly
rest upon the bark of the trunk as well as crawl into
such crevices beneath loose bark as they can find. Here
they remain through fall, winter, and spring, except when
called into brief periods of activity by the unwonted
warmth of the winter sunshine. Then in spring they come
forth again to lay the eggs for the caterpillars of the new
generation.

[Pg 188]
The fresh butterflies are creatures of exquisitely modulated
coloring. The name Compton Tortoise has reference
to the rich brown tones of the upper wing surface,
suggestive of those of fine tortoise-shell. In fresh specimens
much of the surface, especially in the middle and
along the front border, is overlaid with iridescent purple
scales. Near the front outer angle of each of the four
wings there is a distinct white spot, divided near the
middle by a darker line of the vein running through it.
The under surface is one of the best examples of mimicry
of gray bark to be found in any butterfly. The tones vary
considerably in different individuals, but in all the protection
must be well nigh perfect when the insect is at rest
with closed wings upon the bark of a tree. The striking
angularity of the wing's border doubtless helps to conceal
it, and the habit of dropping motionless to the ground
when disturbed must also have protective value. Near
the middle of each hind wing there is a small white J which
led to the specific name J-album.

This butterfly is essentially a member of the Canadian
fauna. It ranges from far north in Labrador, British
America, and Alaska, south as far as Pennsylvania, but toward
its southern limit it occurs only on the higher elevations
of mountains like the Alleghanies.

Some genera of butterflies seem to belong almost exclusively
to the north temperate regions, seldom occurring
even in our Southern states. Others belong equally exclusively
[Pg 189]
to tropical regions, seldom straying into the
north. The Buckeye is an illustration of the latter group.
The genus Junonia to which it belongs is essentially tropical,
as it contains several species which are found throughout
the tropics in both the Old and the New Worlds.
In fact, this is apparently the only species which occurs
north of the tropics. It has an extraordinary range, being
found from Cuba to Massachusetts and from the Atlantic
to the Pacific coasts. Toward the northern limits of its
range it is very rare and one of the greatest prizes which
the collector can obtain. In our Southern states it is an
abundant and generally distributed butterfly and, as it
hibernates as an adult and one group follows another
throughout the season rather rapidly, it is likely to be
taken at almost any time. (See plate, page 176.)

The mother butterflies select as food plants for the larvae
various members of either the plantain or figwort families.
They lay eggs, one in a place, upon the leaves of plantain,
figwort, gerardia, and related plants generally near the
tip of the leaves. Less than a week later these hatch into
spiny caterpillars which feed upon the green substance of
the leaves during the next few weeks. For the most part
they eat between the veins leaving a ragged effect which
may help in finding them. When full grown they change
to chrysalids which hang straight downward and bear a
general resemblance to those of the Thistle butterfly.
Curiously enough, those chrysalids which are attacked by
parasites take on a characteristic golden hue; although the
normal healthy chrysalids are dark brown with a few
touches of a decidedly lighter brown.

In its tropical home, where there is no winter period to
interrupt its growth, this butterfly doubtless continues to
[Pg 190]
develop generation after generation without any break in
the sequence. As the species goes north, however, there
is necessarily such an interruption—in which case the
winter seems commonly to be passed by the adult butterfly.
In our Southern states there are commonly three or
four broods each year, while in the northern parts of its
range there is but one brood a year. In the South there is
such an overlapping that all stages of the insect may be
found at one time.

The most angular of the Angle-wings are grouped in the
genus Polygonia. They are characterized by having the
outer margin of the front wings projecting in two places in
a way to give an angular effect, and by having the hind or
inner margin distinctly excised toward the outer end, so
that this margin is curved rather than straight.

Violet-tip (Polygonia interrogationis or Grapta interrogationis).
Expanse 2½ inches. Under surface of each
hind wing marked by a silvery semicolon, made up of a dot
and a crescent.

Hop Merchant (Polygonia comma or Grapta comma).
Expanse 2 inches. A white comma with expanded tips on
lower surface of each hind wing. Lower surface of all the
wings mottled with brown.

Green Comma (Polygonia faunus or Grapta faunus). Expanse
2 inches. A white comma with expanded tips on
lower surface of each hind wing. The lower surface of all
the wings more or less mottled with green toward the
margins.

[Pg 191]
Gray Comma (Polygonia progne or Grapta progne). Expanse
2 inches. A white comma with tips narrowed
rather than expanded on lower surface of each hind wing.

Our beautiful species of the genus Vanessa may be known
by the long scales that make up the fringe on the wing margins,
in alternate groups of black and white. There are
also several white spots on the upper surface of the outer
angle of each front wing.

Red Admiral (Vanessa atalanta, Pyrameis atalanta or
Cynthia atalanta). Expanse 2 inches. Upper surface of
front wings blackish, marked with white spots on outer
angle and a broad orange stripe across the middle.

Painted Beauty (Vanessa huntera, Pyrameis huntera or
Cynthia huntera). Expanse 2½ inches. Upper surface
orange-brown with black, white, and blue markings. Lower
surface of each hind wing with two large eye-spots, each
extending across two veins.

Painted Lady or Cosmopolite (Vanessa cardui, Pyrameis
cardui or Cynthia cardui). Expanse 2½ inches. Easily
distinguished from the Painted Beauty by the four or more
small eye-spots on the lower surface of each hind wing,
each eye-spot being included between two veins.

The other common Angle-wings are readily distinguished
by the following characters:

Mourning-cloak (Euvanessa antiopa or Vanessa antiopa).
Expanse 3½ inches. Easily known by the nearly black
wings with creamy white borders.

American Tortoise-shell (Aglais milberti or Vanessa
milberti).[Pg 192]
Expanse 1½ inches. One of the smallest of the
Angle-wings. Easily known by its small size and the
broad orange band extending across the upper surface of all
the wings just beyond the middle. Under surface dark
mottled gray without distinct white markings.

Compton Tortoise (Eugonia j-album, Vanessa j-album or
Grapta j-album). Expanse 3 inches. Best known by the
straight line of the inner margin of the front wings and the
white j on the under side of each hind wing.

The Buckeye (Junonia coenia or Vanessa coenia). Expanse
1¾ inches. Distinguished by the large eye-spots on
the upper surface of the wings, one on each front and two
on each hind wing. Eyes not hairy.

[Pg 193]

No other small group of American butterflies has attracted
so much attention as the species of the genus
Basilarchia, which have been happily called the tribe of
Sovereigns. These are rather large butterflies with
rounded wings which are found in one species or another
over practically the whole of North America. Some of
them are of exceeding beauty and all of them present life-histories
of extraordinary interest. At least two of the
species are the most notable examples of the mimicry of
other butterflies that are shown in our fauna. They also
present some extremely interesting problems for the study
of natural hybrids and they illustrate in their development
some of the most wonderful cases of adaptation to environment
that have ever been found.

These butterflies may be considered from so many interesting
points of view that it is a bit difficult to know
which phases to emphasize. In general, there is a striking
similarity in their structure and habits in the earlier stages.
The eggs are very nearly alike; the caterpillars resemble
one another so closely that even expert entomologists
sometimes have to decide what species a collected caterpillar
belongs to by seeing what plant it is feeding upon,
and the chrysalids are also very similar.

Some of the more interesting phases in the development
of these insects are discussed in connection with the life-stories
of the different species. A phase which is characteristic
to all of them may well be emphasized here.
From the time the caterpillars hatch until they change to
chrysalids they illustrate to a marked degree an adaptation
through structure and habit which must very largely protect
them from attack by birds and other enemies. Their
structure and markings are almost grotesque. The body
is covered with strange club-like appendages and it is
colored with a curious mottling of tones of green, drab,
brown, and white which is very difficult to describe but
which suggests, as the caterpillar rests upon rough bark,
simply a bit of bird dung or some natural excrescence.
The caterpillars have the habit of feeding at night and remaining
upon their perches by day, often assuming positions
which are very unusual among insect larvae.
Such positions, in which they remain motionless for hours
at a time, are undoubtedly of protective value and help to
conceal the insect. After the caterpillars are half grown
they rest not upon the leaves upon which they feed, but
rather upon the bark of twigs or branches where their
peculiar structure is likely to make them inconspicuous.

The chrysalids of the Sovereigns are also curiously
[Pg 194]
mottled in color tones that will probably lead to their
being overlooked.

Three distinct species of Sovereigns are found in eastern
North America, namely:

The Viceroy, Basilarchia archippus.

The Banded Purple, Basilarchia arthemis.

The Red-spotted Purple, Basilarchia astyanax.

The first species, the Viceroy, has a much wider distribution
than either of the others. It apparently is found
in nearly all localities in which either of these occur, and so
includes within its range almost the whole of the United
States and much of Canada.

The second of these, the Banded Purple, is a northern
form. It is found commonly at least as far north as the
Mackenzie River region in British America and southward
to central Massachusetts. It also occurs as far west as
Nebraska so that it has a very wide distribution in northern
regions. It is especially abundant in Canada and the
White Mountains.

The third, the Red-spotted Purple, is the characteristic
form south of latitude 42 degrees. Its range overlaps
that of the Banded Purple for about one degree but it is
seldom found north of latitude 42 degrees. It seems to
range about as far west as the Banded Purple.

There are several other butterflies belonging to this
genus which are rarely found and which occur only in
certain limited regions. There has been much discussion
in regard to these. Some entomologists have thought
them simply varieties or dimorphic forms while others
have considered them hybrids. An analysis of the conditions
shows that these doubtful butterflies occur only
in regions where the different species overlap. Thus in
[Pg 195]
the boundary connecting the Banded Purple and the Red-spotted
Purple there are forms which resemble these two
species in such a way as to suggest that these are the
parents of the hybrid. In localities where the Viceroy
and the Banded Purple occur there are other forms which
seem to connect these two species, and in the locality
where the Viceroy and the Red-spotted Purple occur
there are still other forms which seem to suggest these as
the parents. So the evidence seems pretty conclusive
that where these butterflies overlap there are likely to be
occasional crosses between the species which result in
these natural hybrids.

In the far Western states there are certain other species
of Basilarchia which take the place of the eastern form.
One of the most abundant of these on the Pacific Coast
is sometimes called Lorquin's Admiral (B. lorquini).
In Florida there is another species, B. floridensis, which is
found in the Southern states. It is the only one whose
coloring resembles that of the Viceroy.

The common name of this butterfly was probably given
it in allusion to its resemblance to the Monarch butterfly.
For the Monarch and the Viceroy have been closely associated
in the minds of many observers ever since people
began to study butterflies in America. These two insects
have become famous as the most notable examples that we
have of the mimicking of one butterfly by another. According
to the theory which has been held by many naturalists,
the Monarch is distasteful to birds and other animals
[Pg 196]
and it advertises the fact by its bright combination
of brown and black. The Monarch is thus an example
of what has often been called warning coloration. On the
other hand, the Viceroy is commonly supposed to have no
objectionable taste when eaten by birds, but it so closely
resembles the Monarch in its color pattern and its habits
of flight that it has been assumed that birds would not
touch it because of its resemblance to the distasteful
butterfly. There has, however, recently been a reaction
among naturalists in regard to the validity of many supposed
examples of warning coloration and the whole subject
is still open to careful investigation. (See cover; and plate,
page 145.)

Whether the Viceroy deserves its celebrity as an insect
mimic or not, it is well worthy of study for other reasons.
It is a common and attractive butterfly and it has most
interesting habits in the larval state. It is found over a
large part of North America and flies freely from spring
until autumn over meadows, fields, and open glades.

To trace the yearly cycle of this butterfly's life, let us
begin with one of the mother insects flitting along a stream
in early summer. She stops now and then to lay an egg
on the tip of a leaf on a willow or poplar. She then continues
on her way occasionally sipping nectar from any
early flowers she may chance to find, and continuing her
leisurely life perhaps for several weeks.

The egg thus laid upon the poplar leaf remains in position
for a week or more, unless it should be devoured by
some wandering ant or discovered by some tiny parasite.
If it escapes these dangers, it hatches into a minute caterpillar
[Pg 197]
that escapes from the egg shell through a hole in
its side. After it has come out it turns around and eats
the remainder of the shell. It then begins feeding upon
the tender tissue of the leaf it is resting upon, nibbling
at the sides until its appetite is satisfied. Then it retires
to the midrib on the lower surface where it remains quietly
through the day and thereafter feeds chiefly at night.
After about a week it becomes too large for the skin with
which it was born, so it moults and immediately devours
its cast skin. It continues these operations of feeding
and moulting at occasional intervals for several weeks,
finally becoming a rather large and curious looking caterpillar,
mottled in greenish olive and light gray, with two
large horn-like projections from the front of the body.

It finally becomes full grown in this larval state. Then
it spins a web of silk upon the bark of the twig and entangles
the hooked claws of its hind legs in the silken web.
It thus hangs downward until the larval skin is shuffled
off and the curious pupa with the conspicuous hump upon
the middle of its back remains in its place. This chrysalis
is of a mottled coloring, very similar to that of the caterpillar.
A week or so later the chrysalis skin breaks open, and
the butterfly comes out, catching hold of the twig with its
legs and hanging quietly in position while its wings
expand.

The butterflies of this brood are likely to appear late in
summer. It is the second brood of adult butterflies for
the season. These insects have the same leisurely habits
as those that were on the wing earlier in the season. In
a similar way the mother butterflies lay their eggs on the
leaves of willows and poplars, and these eggs soon hatch
into young caterpillars that look like those that hatched in
[Pg 198]
early summer. The caterpillars, however, of this autumnal
brood have a most interesting habit which was entirely
lacking in those of early summer. Soon after hatching
they begin to make for themselves little houses in
which to pass the winter. This is very cleverly done by
utilizing part of the leaf upon which they are feeding.
Each side of the leaf toward its tip is eaten off with the
midrib remaining untouched; then the lower half of the
leaf which has not been eaten is rolled into a tube and securely
sewed together with silken threads. The stem of
the leaf is also covered with a similar silken web and securely
fastened to the twig in such a way that it is impossible
for the leaf to fall off when the other leaves do. The
little caterpillar thus cleverly provides itself with a safe
winter home into which it retreats on the approach of cold
weather to remain until spring. They enter these little
cases head first, and apparently seldom emerge again until
the warm spring sun brings them forth to feed upon the developing
willow catkins or the unfolding leaves.

The caterpillars that thus pass the winter in these
pitcher-like cases are perhaps a third grown. They develop
rapidly in spring and are likely to use the cases for
resting purposes when they are not feeding. After a few
weeks they become full-grown caterpillars and change to
chrysalids, to change again a little later into the butterflies
that appear in early summer. There are thus two
broods of each stage of the insect during the year.

This brief summary of the yearly history of the Viceroy
is by no means adequate as a story of the many interesting
things to be told about this insect, which has been carefully
[Pg 199]
studied by several eminent naturalists. One of these is the
strange habit the very young caterpillars have of fastening
a few bits of leaf together by means of silken threads and
then tying the bunch to the denuded rib of the leaf. To
explain this, allow me to quote from an admirable essay of
the late Samuel H. Scudder, whose studies of butterflies
have added so much to our knowledge of these beautiful
creatures:

"Soon after birth," wrote Mr. Scudder, "when it has
eaten but a very few swaths down the leaf, the little fellow
constructs a small and loose packet from minute bits of
leaf and other rejectamenta, loosely fastened to one another
and to the midrib, close to but scarcely touching the
eaten edge of the leaf; and as fast as the leaf is eaten, it removes
this packet (continually added to until it becomes
almost as big as a small pea) farther and farther down the
midrib away from its perch, always keeping it near the
eaten edge. It should be noted that it is so loosely attached
(the bits of leaf at all possible angles) that it is
moved by the least breath. Meanwhile, the caterpillar
has been growing larger and more conspicuous, and thus in
greater peril from its enemies. There are two possible
services that this odd packet may render. A spider
wandering over a leaf and observing its motion may seize
it, and thinking it has a prize, hurry away with it and leave
its architect unharmed. This seems to me rather a
strained suggestion, for a wandering spider would probably
proceed to investigate it on the spot. Another explanation
seems more probable. It should be remembered
that the leaves preferred by these creatures as food are
mostly such as are easily shaken by the wind, and as the
caterpillar moves with the leaf and with all the surrounding
[Pg 200]
leaves (in a continual fluttering in the case of the
trembling aspen, and to a less degree in the other food
plants), this of itself is a protection to it, as it would more
readily escape observation as an object distinct from the
leaves, all being in motion together; but on the more
stable leaves, like the willow, the motion in a feeble wind
would not be sufficient to be serviceable, and here, at
least, the packet comes into play. An object in motion
among others at rest is a noticeable thing; a fact well
recognized among animals, as a host of them show when
they fear being seen. This packet attached by loose
silken threads moves, as stated, with a breath of wind, and
so would distract attention from its architect near by, who
has taken pains to place it at the farthest remove from his
perch while still (to avoid undesirable steps) on his daily
track. If this be really its object, it is surely one of the
oddest devices in nature."

The curious winter cases of the Viceroy were first
carefully described by the late Dr. C. V. Riley, in one of
his classic reports on the insects of Missouri. It is one of
the best accounts which has ever been written and is well
worth quoting at some length:

"The larvae of the autumnal brood," wrote Doctor Riley,
"when about one fourth or one third grown, build for
themselves curious little houses in which they pass the
winter. First and foremost—with wise forethought and
being well aware through its natural instincts that the
leaf which it has collected for its house will fall to the
ground when the cold weather sets in unless it takes
measures to prevent this—the larva fastens the stem of
the leaf with silken cables securely to the twig from which
it grows. It then gnaws off the blade of the leaf at its tip
[Pg 201]
end, leaving little else but the midrib. Finally it rolls the
remaining part of the blade of the leaf into a cylinder,
sewing the edges together with silk. The basal portion
of the cylinder is of course tapered to a point as the edges
of the leaf are nearly drawn together, not overlapped; and
invariably the lower side of the leaf forms the outside of
the house so as to have the projecting midrib out of the
way of the larva as it reposes snugly on the inside. The
whole, when finished, has somewhat the appearance of the
leaf of a miniature pitcher-plant (Sarracenia), its length
being .50-.65 inch, and its diameter .11-.14 inch.

"These curious little cases may be commonly found
upon our willows and poplars in the winter time. I have
examined hundreds of them and although they are invariably
built upon this plan, they vary greatly in the
degree of perfection which the architect attained; and
this is especially the case where they have been built in
confinement. The blade on the tip piece is sometimes
gnawed off right down to the rib; at others it is left almost
as broad as the tube. Sometimes it is bent over the orifice;
at others not. They are also much more irregular and
ungainly when made with broad leaves, such as those of
the silver poplar, than when made from the more narrow
leaves of the willow tree. These autumnal larvae have
also another peculiar habit: they exhibit a tendency to
build from the time they are hatched and will always eat
the leaves from the side, gnawing large holes and cutting
along the sides of the midrib. They commence at the
tip, and as they work downward toward the base, they
collect the débris into a little bunch which they fasten with
silk to the midrib. When the hibernaculum is finished the
seam is perfectly smooth and the hole inside is lined with
[Pg 202]
silk. The larva, having completed its work, composes
itself for the winter with the hind end toward the orifice.
Here it remains till the catkins are in bloom the next spring
when it retreats from its house and commences feeding.
Not the least wonderful part of this phenomenon is that
it is only the autumnal brood of larvae that form pitcher-like
houses to live in during the inclement season of the
year—the summer brood having no occasion to shelter
themselves from cold." It is an interesting fact that in
most northern regions these winter cases are nearly always
made so near the ground that they are protected by snow
during most of the winter.

When an insect has such a curious habit as that of making
these winter cases it seems comparatively easy to explain
it as an acquired instinct brought about through the
conditions of life during the long period in which successive
generations have been laid. But, as Doctor Riley seems to
suggest above, it is much more difficult to explain this sort
of phenomenon when it occurs only in one of two or more
broods during the season.

None of our common butterflies shows more striking
color markings than the Banded Purple. A broad white
stripe runs midway through the wings on both surfaces,
the white making a strong contrast to the purplish or
brownish black of the rest of the wings. This white band
is supplemented by rows of fulvous and of blue dots,
especially on both surfaces of the hind wings.

[Pg 203]
This butterfly is a northern form ranging to a large extent
north of the regions occupied by the Viceroy. Its
life-history is very similar to that of the latter insect. The
caterpillars have the same curious habits and bear a close
general resemblance to one another. The Banded Purple
butterflies appear in June and lay their eggs in July upon
the tips of the leaves of birches, especially the black birch.
Almost all of these eggs are laid within two or three feet of
the ground. They are of grayish green color. The caterpillars
are greenish- or olive-brown.

About a week after the egg is laid it hatches into a small
caterpillar that feeds upon the sides of the leaf and rests
upon the midrib just as the Viceroy caterpillar does. It
continues to feed through July and the early part of
August, moulting once or twice before it begins to form
the winter case. It usually goes into this during the
latter part of August, when it is in the second or third
caterpillar stage. From then on it remains quietly in its
winter home, being covered by the deep snows during
several months, and coming out about the middle of the
following May, when the spring warmth starts the buds
of its food plant. It then feeds for two or three weeks
before it changes to a chrysalis to emerge in June as a
butterfly. There seems to be normally but one brood
each year although under exceptional conditions some of
the eggs laid in July mature into butterflies the same
season. But it is probable that these butterflies either do
not lay eggs and perish as the cold comes on, or that if
they do lay eggs the caterpillars that hatch from them do
not get large enough to construct their winter cases. Consequently,
it is doubtful if we can consider the insect
really two-brooded even in part.

[Pg 204]

Were it not for the wonderful iridescence of its wings
the Red-spotted Purple would be one of the most plainly
marked of the Sovereigns. But the upper surface of both
pairs of wings is thickly covered with iridescent scales
which give the insect a shimmering beauty that makes it
conspicuous among northern butterflies, suggesting something
of the marvelous coloring of the large tropical
species. The general coloring is a purplish black with
rows of white dots along the borders of the wings. The
under surface shows much more of the fulvous brown which
is so characteristic of the Viceroy, the brownish background
being rather thinly overlaid with iridescent scales,
but with a large number of spots and stripes, where the
fulvous color alone shows.

The favorite food plants of this species belong to the
great order Rosaceae which includes the apple, pear, cherry,
rose, and many other common trees and shrubs. The
egg is laid upon the extreme tip of the leaf, a characteristic
habit of all the species of Basilarchia. It obviously
must have decided advantages in preserving the eggs
from attack by ants, spiders, Ichneumon flies, and other
enemies. All of these creatures are constantly patrolling
leaf surfaces in search of eggs and minute insects. They
are much more likely to find their victims upon the broad
general surface than upon the extreme tip of narrowly
pointed leaves. The eggs of all these butterflies are small,
and pitted much like a tiny little honeycomb with a large
number of tiny hairs arising from the surface. These
[Pg 205]
hairs are very similar to the hairs upon the surface of
many leaves and they probably assist in leading other insects
to overlook the eggs. Yet, notwithstanding these
devices for protection, it remains true that a large
proportion of the eggs are attacked by tiny parasites
and probably many others are eaten by ants and
spiders. This very fact emphasizes the necessity of such
protective features as the laying of one egg in a place
upon the tip of a leaf and the hairy covering on the egg
shells.

A few days after the eggs are laid each hatches into a
small caterpillar that immediately begins feeding upon
the green tissues beside it—first, however, devouring the
empty egg shell. It does not eat the midrib of the leaf,
but utilizes it as a perch, generally winding it more or less
with silken threads, apparently to make it stronger and
to prevent it from curling up. The caterpillar seems to
feed chiefly at night, resting quietly by day. After a week
or so it moults and then continues feeding as before. It
continues to feed and grow for several weeks, moulting
regularly until it becomes full fed as a caterpillar. It then
spins a web of silk closely upon the bark of twig or branch
or possibly upon some other object near at hand. In this
web it entangles the hooked claws of its hind legs and
hangs downward preparatory to the change to the chrysalis.
Soon afterward the last larval skin is shed and the
chrysalis hangs in place of the caterpillar. This chrysalis
has the characteristic form of all the members of this
limited group, the outer skin being well hardened and
there being a very prominent projection on the middle of
the back.

The chrysalis hangs thus, buffeted more or less by
[Pg 206]
wind and rain for about ten days, then the skin breaks
apart and the butterfly emerges.

Over a large part of its range there are two broods of
this butterfly each year. The adults appear in early
summer and lay eggs which develop into butterflies again
during the latter part of summer. The life-history of this
generation is the one described in the last paragraph. The
eggs laid by these late summer butterflies, however, require
a somewhat different story. They hatch in the
same way as the others but when the caterpillars have
moulted about twice they form a winter case or hibernaculum,
in exactly the same way as the caterpillars of
the Viceroy. They remain within these winter homes
till the following spring, when they come forth and complete
their development producing the early summer brood
of butterflies with which our story began.

In Florida and some of the other Southern states there
is a butterfly which looks almost like the Viceroy except
that the brown coloring of the wings is very much darker.
The species has been called the Vicereine as it is believed
to mimic the Queen Butterfly, a species closely related to
the Monarch and occurring in the Southern states. The
Vicereine probably has a life-history very similar to that
of its northern cousin.

Banded Purple (Basilarchia arthemis or Limenitis
arthemis). Expanse 2½ inches. Ground color of upper
[Pg 207]
surface of wings black with a distinct white band in bow-like
form running across the middle of both wings. A row
of six tawny spots just outside the white band on each hind
wing and various sub-marginal blue spots outside of these.
Under surface tawny brown with the white stripe distinct
and many red-brown spots.

Red-spotted Purple (Basilarchia astyanax or Limenitis
astyanax). Expanse 2½ inches. Ground color brownish
black tinged with bluish, especially on the hind wings.
No white band but various red and blue spots, especially
near the outer margins of the upper surface of both pairs
of wings.

Viceroy (Basilarchia archippus or Limenitis disippus).
Expanse 2½ inches. General color reddish brown with
veins and margins blackish. A narrow black band running
across the hind wings just beyond the middle. A
series of white spots in all the marginal bands.

Vicereine (Basilarchia floridensis). Expanse 2½ inches.
Similar to the Viceroy but much darker in the brown
coloring of all the wings.

The members of this small group are distinguished from
the closely related Sovereigns by the tailed hind wings
in one species, by the eye-spots on the upper surface of
the wings of the others, and by the fact that on the club
of the antennae there are three instead of four longitudinal
ridges. There is also a distinction in the arrangement
of the veins of the hind wings.

This tribe is represented in our northern fauna by only
two genera. In the genus Chlorippe the antennae are as
long as the front wings are wide. In the genus Anoea the
[Pg 208]
antennae are much shorter than the width of the front
wings. Only two species of the former and one of the
latter are sufficiently abundant to be considered here.

Comparatively few butterflies are confined so closely
to the valley of the Mississippi River as the Goatweed
Emperor. From southern Illinois south to the Gulf this
insect is rather abundant in many localities where its food
plant, the goatweed, is common. The life-history of the
insect was carefully studied by Dr. C. V. Riley, and one of
the best accounts was published in one of his early reports
on the insects of Missouri. The excellent illustrations
in that article first made the species familiar to many
students.

Briefly summarized, the life-history runs something like
this: the butterflies hibernate, coming forth in spring and
visiting various spring and early summer flowers. The
females deposit eggs singly upon the leaves of the young
goatweed plants. In a week or less each egg hatches into
a little caterpillar that feeds upon the tip of the leaf
leaving the midrib and covering it with silk so that it
may serve as a resting perch. Later each makes an excellent
tent for itself by bending over and binding together
the opposite margins of a leaf.[D] This bit of work
is cleverly done, a hole being left at each end so that
there is good ventilation and an opportunity for the caterpillar
to go in and out. Quite frequently the nest is also
lined with more or less silken webbing. This tent is used
as a refuge from the heat of the sun and doubtless serves
also in concealing the caterpillar from its many enemies.
The larva goes out to neighboring leaves when it wishes
to feed and only occasionally eats up the leaf of which its
tent is made.
When this is
done it must of
course construct
another home.

[Pg 209]
After some weeks of this sheltered existence the caterpillar is ready
to change to a chrysalis. It leaves the tent and commonly attaches a
bit of silken web to the under side of a leaf or branch of its food
plant or some other kind of shelter. Here it changes to a chrysalis,
to emerge a little later as the beautiful burnt-orange butterfly.
There are said to be two broods each season, in some regions, although
in others there seems to be but one. The butterflies hibernate in
hollow trees or in such other shelters as they may find.

The full-grown caterpillar (a) is an inch and a half long
and of a general grayish color, dotted thickly with slightly
elevated points. The chrysalis (b) is suggestive of that
[Pg 210]
of the Monarch butterfly. It is light green covered with
whitish granules.

The adult butterfly is remarkable for the falcate shape
of the outer margin of each front wing and the broad tail
at the hind outer angle of each hind wing. In the male the
upper surface of all the wings is of a dark orange tone,
with a rather narrow brown marginal marking. In the
female this marginal band is broader and is nearly paralleled
by another narrower band a little nearer the body.
In bright sunshine there is a distinct purplish red iridescence
over practically the whole upper surface. The
under side of both wings is of a color to suggest a dead
brown leaf, with a purplish iridescence in certain angles of
light.

This very distinctive medium-sized butterfly is found in
the Southern states at least as far west as the Mississippi
Valley. It extends north to Indiana and Ohio and probably
occurs quite generally from Ohio eastward. This
species is distinguished by the general gray-brown or olive-brown
coloring of the wing surfaces, heavily marked with
a much darker dusky brown and with many irregular
white spots as well as one large eye-spot on each front
wing near the border, and a row of seven more or less distinct
eye-spots near the border of each hind wing.

Like the Tawny Emperor this species feeds in the larval
state upon the leaves of hackberry. In Missouri the
butterflies appear in June. A little later they lay eggs
upon the under side of the hackberry leaves, commonly
[Pg 211]
one in a place but sometimes several side by side. A few
days later these eggs hatch into little yellow caterpillars
that feed upon the leaves for about a month when they
become full grown. They are then a little more than an
inch long, of a general light green color with yellow spots
along the middle of the back and three yellow lines along
each side. The head has a pair of curious antlers much
like those of the caterpillar of the Tawny Emperor.
These caterpillars now spin a bit of silken web on the
under side of the leaf or twig. They attach their hind legs
into this web and hang downward for a day or two, before
casting the last larval skin and changing to chrysalids.
They change again to butterflies which are seen upon the
wing early in August. These butterflies lay eggs in turn
on the hackberry leaves, the eggs soon hatching into small
caterpillars which according to Riley's observations are
less active than those of the earlier brood. These caterpillars
feed for a few weeks until they become nearly half
grown and have passed their second or possibly their
third moult. They now stop eating and get ready for a
long fast through the winter. Apparently some of them
at least attach themselves to the under side of the hackberry
leaves and turn to a brownish color, remaining upon
the leaves until the latter fall to the ground and presumably
hibernating in the shelter thus provided. Whether
or not all of the caterpillars have this rather curious habit
seems to be doubtful. It has been suggested that some
of them find shelter within the crevices in the rough bark
of the tree. At any rate, the caterpillars remain in a sort
of stupor until the following spring. Then they awaken,
climb up the trees or bushes, and begin feeding upon the
young leaves. They continue this until they become full
[Pg 212]
grown in May when they change to chrysalids, to emerge
as the first brood of butterflies the following month.
Many of the caterpillars make a sort of nest for themselves
by spinning a web of silk upon the under surface of
the leaf and drawing together slightly the outer edges.

As is the case with so many other butterflies that
hibernate as caterpillars, apparently the species is only
partially double-brooded. Some of the earlier caterpillars
become lethargic when half grown and remain in that
condition throughout the later weeks of summer and all
through the fall and winter.

This handsome butterfly is easily distinguished from the
Gray Emperor by the general reddish color of the wings
which are thickly marked with bands and eye-spots of
darker brown or black. The eye-spots are especially
marked on the hind wing, there being a row of five of these
on each hind wing in both sexes. The females are decidedly
larger than the male and generally of a distinctly
lighter color.

This butterfly is a southern species found more or less
abundantly from southern New York to northern Florida
and across the country to a line drawn from Iowa to Texas.
It seems to be more common in the Mississippi Valley than
in other regions and its life-history was first thoroughly
worked out in Missouri and published in one of Riley's
classic reports on the insects of that state. It has since
been studied by Edwards and others, but even now there
[Pg 213]
seems to be some uncertainty in regard to many points in
its development, notably the number of broods in different
localities and the habits of the larvae when preparing for
hibernation.

The principal points in the life-history of the species may
be outlined as follows: some time in July the eggs are laid
on the leaves of hackberry in dense clusters, each of which
may contain from two hundred to five hundred eggs.
These are usually deposited in two or more layers, one
upon another. A little more than a week later these eggs
hatch, each caterpillar eating through one end in a way to
cut out the rim of a tiny cap which is pushed up as the
larva escapes. The whole brood emerges at practically
the same time and collects upon one or more leaves where
they begin to feed upon the succulent green tissues. Like
so many caterpillars that feed in companies each spins a
silken thread wherever it goes.

The little larvae remain together until after the third
moult, at which time they are about half grown. In the
more northern regions where they are found they are now
likely to scatter about in search of quarters for hibernation.
Having found suitable shelter, they remain through the
winter to come forth early the following spring and feed
upon the developing leaves of the hackberry trees. They
continue to do this for a few weeks before they become full
grown. They are then smooth-bodied, greenish worms
about an inch and a half long, striped longitudinally in
yellow and brown. The hind end of the body is forked
in a curious fashion and the head is even more remarkable
for the strange pair of tiny antlers projecting from it.

These full-grown caterpillars soon change to pale green
chrysalids, lightly striped with longitudinal lines of yellow,
[Pg 214]
with a distinctly pointed head. From these chrysalids
butterflies emerge early in summer.

Evidently in the more Southern states there are two
broods of these butterflies each year but there is great need
of more precise knowledge in regard to them.

As is the case with so many other butterflies there is a
dimorphic form, called ocellata, in which the outer half of
the hind wing is very dark brown, with the eye-spot showing
as black with red-brown circles.

Goatweed Emperor (Anoea andria or Pyrrhanea andria).
Expanse 2½ inches. Front outer angle of each front wing
projecting into a falcate tip. Rear outer angle of each
hind wing projecting into a distinct tail. General color
burnt-orange with darker marginal bands, and in the female
on the upper surface other sub-marginal markings.

Gray Emperor (Chlorippe celtis). Expanse 2 inches.
General color grayish brown with numerous markings of
white and blackish. A distinct brown eye-spot on the
upper surface of each front wing near the outer hind
angle.

Tawny Emperor (Chlorippe clyton). Expanse 2 inches.
General color tawny brown with markings of black and
yellowish white. No distinct eye-spot on upper surface
of front wings.

The Meadow-browns form one of the most distinctive
family groups among all the butterfly tribes. They are
[Pg 215]
characterized, at least so far as our eastern species are
concerned, by their slender bodies and rather large wings,
toned in various shades of brown, and marked chiefly with
conspicuous and characteristic eye-spots. The larger
veins of the front wings are swollen at the base. The
caterpillars are rather slender and have a curious division
of the last body segment into two parts, which gives them
an appearance suggestive of the caterpillar of the Emperor
butterflies, although the Meadow-brown caterpillars
do not have, upon the head, the curious antlers
borne by the Emperor larvae.

In the development of our knowledge of both birds and
mammals as found upon the American continent the experience
in many cases has been essentially this: a bird
or a mammal was first described from some well-known
region of North America, commonly from specimens carried
to Europe by early voyagers. Later other species of
the same genus were brought to light by various explorers
and given specific names. As each section was thus explored
a new form differing markedly from the others was
found and named. At a later period, when great collections
were brought together so that one observer was able
to make a careful survey of specimens from all parts of the
continent, it was found that many of these species merged
into each other through intergrading forms from regions
between the localities of the original species. So it has
come about that in the case of a large number of our birds
[Pg 216]
and mammals we have geographical races distinctly recognized
instead of separate species.

While the study of butterflies has by no means received
the degree of attention which has been given the birds and
mammals, it is already evident that a similar condition prevails
with reference to many species. As the size of collections
has increased and more careful studies have been
made of the various forms from different regions it has been
found in numerous cases that they intergraded to so great
an extent that it is impossible to distinguish many species
which were formerly considered entirely distinct. One of
the most striking examples of this is found in the case of
our common Wood-nymph, which is sometimes called the
Blue-eyed Grayling. The form which is one of our most
abundant butterflies in southern New England and many
of the Eastern states was described as Satyrus alope by the
French naturalist Fabricius, who also described another
species from the Southern states as Satyrus pegala, and a
form found in northern Canada was described by the
English entomologist Kirby as Satyrus nephele. Various
other forms from isolated regions have been given specific
names by other authorities. (See plate, page 81.)

During recent years many collectors have gathered these
butterflies from all parts of North America and many
specimens have been grouped together in the more important
collections. When this occurred it became easy
to see that this is essentially a variable species which
under varying climatic conditions has assumed slightly
different forms, so that we have a good illustration of
well-developed geographical races. The more important
of these are indicated in the synopsis of the Meadow-browns
on page 227.

[Pg 217]

One good indication that these varying forms all have a
common origin is found in the remarkable unity of their
life-histories. It is essentially the same in all. The
mother butterflies lay eggs late in summer upon the leaves
of grasses and perhaps other plants. About three weeks
later these eggs hatch into small caterpillars that immediately
become lethargic and begin their hibernating condition
without eating any vegetation. They remain thus
fasting until spring when, after the weather warms up
sufficiently, they begin to feed upon grasses and perhaps
other herbage. But they have lots of time in which to
complete their growth and they are very moderate in their
eating and their movements. They grow slowly so that
they do not become mature as caterpillars until June.
They then change to chrysalids to emerge as butterflies
during July and August. The female butterflies remain
upon the wing for some weeks before they begin to lay
their eggs. We thus have in this case an adaptation to
single-broodedness in practically all stages of the insect's
life. The twelve months of the year must be passed and
egg, larva, chrysalis, and butterfly each seems to try to do
its part in prolonging its period of life.

These butterflies are especially common along streams
and near the borders of woods, as well as in upland pastures
and meadows. They are interesting creatures with
characteristic manner of flight. They are by no means so
easy to capture as one might think who sees them apparently
going with slow, erratic motions from flower to
flower. Mr. S. F. Denton, a collector of long experience,
has written this interesting paragraph upon this point:

[Pg 218]
"As the flight of these insects is weak, they have been
obliged to resort to a number of tricks to outwit their
enemies. In capturing these butterflies the collector will
very soon become acquainted with their modes of escape,
which are very interesting and show no small amount of
cunning, scarcely to be looked for in an innocent little
butterfly. Their first plan of escape on being disturbed is
to make directly for a clump of bushes into the thickest
part of which they dive and there remain until the danger
is past. If one is startled from the grass at some distance
from a safe retreat and the collector overtakes him, he will
immediately dodge backward and forward, at one time
high in air and again low down near the grass tops, and in
spite of his slow flight keeping well clear of the net. If the
net is at last brought very close to him he will try his last
desperate scheme to elude his pursuer and shutting his
wings quickly together will drop into the grass, disappearing
as if by magic. If it were not for the cunning of the
frail little creatures they would doubtless have gone to the
wall long ago in the struggle for existence."

This large southern butterfly is sufficiently distinct from
the other Wood-nymphs to rank as a separate species.
The yellow blotch has expanded into a large band extending
practically across the front wings. On its upper surface
there is one eye-spot in the male and two in the female.
It is abundant in the extreme Southern states and has
occasionally been taken much farther north.

[Pg 219]

Most butterflies are creatures of open country, basking
freely in the sunshine and visiting flowers of many sorts
for their nectar food. Some of them are found at times
along the borders of woods and others seek the woods
especially in autumn for the purpose of hibernation. This
exquisite Pearly Eye, however, is distinctly a woodland
species, being found only in little glades in the midst of
woods and apparently seldom even seeking flowers for
their nectar. It is commonly considered one of the rarest
of American butterflies, but many collectors who have
searched their regions carefully have been able to find
small areas in which the butterfly is quite abundant. In
such situations it may be looked for in all parts of the
United States east of the western limits of the Mississippi
Valley and south of Canada, except perhaps the lower part
of Florida.

In northern regions this butterfly is single-brooded: the
adults appear shortly before midsummer and continue
on the wing through July and at least part of August.
The eggs are laid some weeks after the butterflies emerge.
The caterpillars feed upon grasses and apparently hibernate
after they become well grown, changing to chrysalids
the following spring in time to emerge as butterflies in
early summer.

These Pearly Eyes have certain characteristics which are
of especial interest. No other species presents such exquisite
modulation of brown coloring arranged in beautiful
circles upon both surfaces of the wings. The males
[Pg 220]
possess, perhaps to a greater degree than any other of our
native butterflies, the ability to give off a peculiar, pleasant
aroma which is noticeable whenever the insects are
collected and which at least one careful observer has been
able to detect in the open air as the butterfly flew near.

For many years Mr. W. F. Fiske made a special study
of the butterflies prevailing in the region of Webster,
New Hampshire. His word picture of the haunts of the
Pearly Eye is more adequate than any other which has
been published and seems well worth quoting in this
connection:

"I have found them in several localities, always in some
numbers, but nowhere more abundant than in a little
wooded glen in Webster. Here a scattering group of tall
pines, a few thick hemlocks, and a young growth of miscellaneous
deciduous trees fill up the space between two
rather steep banks. A small trout brook follows close by
one of these banks, and near the lower end of the glen, in a
space kept clear of underbrush by the overshadowing influence
of the pines and hemlocks, is a little spring, the
overflow from which keeps the ground moist for some
space on each side of the channel which it follows to the
brook. This is the great meeting place of these butterflies;
here they may be seen at almost any time in the day
except in the early morning—when they seek the outskirts
of the woods—until the shades of evening render
their flitting forms indistinguishable. Half-way up the
bank on one side, half shrouded in the dense growth of
underbrush which is springing up around it, is an old
apple tree upon which the sapsuckers work yearly. The
wounded limbs, dripping with sap, are frequented by
many forms of insect life, most noticeable among them
[Pg 221]
this butterfly, and such refreshment added to the moisture
which they suck from the margin of the spring is all that I
have ever seen them partake."

For delicacy of gray-brown color tones few butterflies
can compare with this exquisite creature. It seems indeed
to have succeeded in a modest attempt to obliterate
itself, for even when the spread wings are placed against
a clear white background they can scarcely be called conspicuous
and it is very probable that when the butterfly
is at rest in its native haunts, with wings closed together
so that only the very delicate light brown color-tones of
the under surface are revealed, it actually becomes invisible.

The upper surface of the wings is broadly washed with a
gray-brown color which runs into a suggestion of a lighter
band near the outer margin of the front pair. The
upper surface of the hind wings is almost uniformly washed
with this same brown color which is interrupted only by
very fine, double lines at the outer margin and a sub-marginal
row of delicate ocelli which are larger than the
somewhat similar sub-marginal row of eye-spots on the
front wings. The under surface is much lighter in color,
with distinct striations extending across the main surface
of both wings from front to back and with some very attractive
ocelli arranged as a sub-marginal series each with
a central white eye.

This is distinctly a northern species, having rather a
[Pg 222]
limited range in Canada and New England. It extends
south to Pennsylvania and Ohio and westward to Wisconsin
and Iowa. It is more abundant in northern than in
southern New England but it is often overlooked by collectors
who are not familiar with its haunts. It is especially
likely to be found among the tall grass of swamps
and brooks running through lowlands. One of the best
ways to discover it is to beat the grasses in such situations.

The life-history of the Eyed Brown is fairly well known.
The eggs are laid chiefly on grasses and probably at times
upon the grass-like sedges. The larvae feed upon these
plants and become nearly full grown before winter sets
in. They then hibernate in this larval stage and the following
spring complete their growth and change to chrysalids
in time for the butterflies to emerge in June. There
is but one brood a year.

To appreciate the extraordinary distribution of this
notable species one must let his fancy carry him back a
million years or so until he reaches that old time when the
whole northern part of the American continent was covered
with an icy coating. Then he must follow the gradual
retreating of the ice northward, carrying with it wonderful
changes in climate and along with these climatic
changes taking northward many plants and animals
which were adapted to the cool temperature along the
borders of the glacier. As the ice cap retreated most of
these arctic forms retreated with it, and all along the
[Pg 223]
lower levels they were replaced by others migrating from
the south so that gradually there came about the distribution
of plants and animals as we find them to-day.

When, however, the glaciers left the higher elevations
of the White Mountains and the Rocky Mountains there
were at the summits small areas in which the climatic
conditions were of very much the same arctic character
as prevailed along the margin of the ice cap. Consequently
conditions were here favorable for the continuation
of many of the arctic species which had disappeared
from the warmer, lower levels. It was as if we had a
great sea of air of a certain warmth and rising above this
the islands of the mountain tops, these islands retaining
the same arctic features as otherwise are found much
farther northward.

Among the animals thus left stranded by the retreating
ice cap this White Mountain butterfly has perhaps attracted
the most attention from scientists. It is a butterfly
of moderate size which shows in every phase of its
structure and its life-history the results of the long process
of adaptation to its unique environment. It has been
carefully studied by many observers and has been considered
one of the most desirable trophies by every collector
of insects. As a result, notwithstanding its isolation and
the difficulty of studying it, its life-history is better known
than that of many a common and widely distributed
species.

To appreciate the facts in regard to the structure and
life of this butterfly one must know that its habitat is
confined to a thousand feet or so at the summits of the
mountain, that in this area there are no trees or even
shrubs worth mentioning, and that the surface of the
[Pg 224]
mountain is covered with rocks between which grow a few
stunted sedges and over which grows the ever-present
reindeer moss. It is a bleak, bare, gray environment,
constantly swept by terrific winds, where snow is seen in
August and is likely to remain until June. So the summer
season is of briefest duration and the climatic conditions
are so severe that one can only wonder how a fragile
creature like a butterfly is able to survive the twelve long
months.

From a first glance at the mottled gray-brown wings of
these insects one would guess that here was a distinctive
example of obliterative coloring, and it is true as all observers
testify that when the butterfly lights upon the stones
and turns sideways, as apparently it does habitually in
deference to the force of the wind, it becomes very difficult
to see, for the wings are closed and only the rounded,
mottled under surface shows. It appears also to have the
habit of some of the Graylings when hard pushed of simply
closing its wings and dropping to the ground feigning
death. In deference also to the winds its flight is just
above the surface. Doubtless if it rose high in the air it
would be swept away to lower regions where evidently
it is unable to survive for long periods.

[Pg 225]
These butterflies appear early in July and continue on
the wing for several weeks. They lay their small eggs
upon or near a species of sedge which is abundant on these
alpine summits. About two weeks later the eggs hatch
into sluggish little caterpillars which feed upon the sedge
leaves, apparently eating only at night and hiding in
crevices between stones by day. As one would expect
from the prevailing low temperatures these caterpillars
grow very slowly and apparently a large proportion of
them require two years to complete their development.
There seems to be some uncertainty in regard to this
phase of the insect's life-history, but most entomologists
are of the opinion that some of the butterflies mature in
one year while others require two years: that is, the broods
are both annual and biennial. There is no doubt that
the insect hibernates as a caterpillar, and if this statement
about the number of broods is correct some of the caterpillars
hibernate when very small, and recently hatched
from the egg, while others hibernate when nearly full
grown.

The full-grown caterpillars change to chrysalids beneath
the shelter of the small stones in practically the same sorts
of situation which they have chosen for hiding at night or
for hibernation through the winter. Here without any
button of silk or silken loop and with scarcely a suggestion
of a silken cocoon they change to chrysalids, generally
about the first of June. They remain in this condition
for perhaps three or four weeks when they come forth as
butterflies.

This is another butterfly of decided interest because of
its geographical distribution. It is normally an inhabitant
of the Far North, extending around the North Pole over
parts of three continents. Apparently, the only place in
the United States where it occurs is a bog a little north of
[Pg 226]
Bangor, Maine. This locality is called the Orono-Stillwater
bog and is the only place where collectors have
been able to find this species.

An even more local insect is another of these mountain
butterflies found by H. H. Newcomb on Mount Katahdin,
Maine. So far as known this species is confined to the
higher portion of this mountain and so is even more distinctly
localized than the White Mountain butterfly.
It is called the Katahdin butterfly (Oeneis norna katahdin).

This elfin creature has well been named the Little Wood
Satyr, although under our modern conditions it is often
found in fields and along hedgeroads rather than in the
woods. It has, to a marked degree, the delicacy of structure
of its allies and its small size serves to emphasize this
appearance. It has also a rather general distribution
west to the Mississippi Valley, extending from the corner
of Dakota, south through Nebraska, Kansas, and central
Texas, and north to Wisconsin, Michigan, and New England.
It occupies the whole of the United States east
and south of the lines thus indicated.

The life-history of this species is very similar to the
Common Grayling. The butterflies appear in early
summer, deposit their eggs upon grasses, and the resulting
larvae feed upon the grasses and grow slowly through the
weeks of summer. They become nearly full grown by[Pg 227]
autumn and hibernate in this condition in such shelter as
they can find at the soil surface. The following spring
they come forth, probably feeding for a short time, and
change to chrysalids in time to emerge as butterflies in
May and early June. Practically all observers emphasize
the fact that the butterflies are abundant only late in
spring or early in summer, generally disappearing before
the middle of July. There is thus but one brood a year.

The Gemmed Brown (Neonympha gemma) is a small
southern species remarkable for the plainness of its gray-brown
wings which are marked on the upper surface only
with two or three dark spots on the middle margin of each
hind wing. There are two broods a year.

The Georgia Satyr (Neonympha phocion) is another
small southern form, remarkable for the four elongated
eye-spots on the lower surface of each hind wing. The
shape of these spots distinguishes it at once from the
Carolina Satyr (Cissia sosybius) in which the eye-spots
are rounded.

Pearly Eye (Enodia portlandia or Debis portlandia). Expanse
2¼ inches. Eyes hairy. Outer margin of hind
wings projecting in a noticeable angle. Brown with many
distinct eye-spots on both surfaces of wings.

Eyed Brown (Satyrodes canthus or Neonympha canthus).
Expanse 2 inches. Eyes hairy. Margin of hind wings
rounded, without an angle. Both surfaces of wings pale[Pg 228]
brown with four distinct blackish eye-spots on each front
wing near the margin. Five or six such spots on each hind
wing.

Common Wood-nymph or Grayling (Cercyonis alope).
Expanse 2 inches. Eyes not hairy. Eye-spots on front
wings, but not on upper surface of hind wings. The chief
geographical races of this abundant species are indicated
below, although in regions where the forms overlap many
intermediate hybrids occur.

Blue-eyed Grayling (Cercyonis alope alope). A large
yellowish-brown blotch near outer margin of each front
wing, above and below, with two distinct eye-spots in
middle spaces of the blotch. A southern race extending
north to central New Hampshire, Michigan, and Wisconsin.

Dull-eyed Grayling (Cercyonis alope nephele). The yellowish
brown blotch obsolete or nearly so, but eye-spots
present. A northern race extending southward only to central
New Hampshire, Michigan, and Wisconsin.

Maritime Grayling (Cercyonis alope maritima). Similar
to the type form, but with the yellowish blotch tinged with
reddish. A race found only near the seacoast.

Southern Wood-nymph (Cercyonis pegala). Expanse 3
inches. Eyes not hairy. General color brown with an
orange-yellow blotch near outer margin of each front wing
above and below with one eye-spot in middle space of the
blotch on the male, and two on the female.

Little Wood-satyr (Cissia eurytus or Neonympha
eurytus). Expanse 1½ inches. Eyes not hairy. General
color fawn-brown with two eye-spots on upper surface of
each front wing and several on each hind wing.

Gemmed Brown (Neonympha gemma). Expanse [Pg 229]1¼
inches. Eyes not hairy. General color mouse-brown with
no markings on upper wing surface except a rather indistinct
pair or more of spots next the margin of the middle
of each hind wing. Under surface indistinctly striped with
rusty lines and a few brown and silvery spots on the hind
wings directly beneath the spots on the upper surfaces.
Occurs in Southern states.

Georgia Satyr (Neonympha phocion). Expanse 1¼
inches. Distinguished from the related species by the
four distinct eye-spots on lower surface of each hind wing,
these spots being transversely elongated rather than round.
Occurs in Southern states.

Carolina Satyr (Cissia sosybius). Expanse 1¼ inches.
Distinguished by the row of round eye-spots near outer
margins of lower wing surface. Occurs in Southern
states.

This is a tropical family with only a single species migrating
northward to our Southern states. The butterflies
of this group are characterized by having the wings
so long and narrow that their length is usually twice as
great as their width. The front legs in both sexes are so
poorly developed that they are considered a modification
approaching the complete dwarfing found in the Brush-footed
butterflies.

While the butterflies of temperate North America sh[Pg 230]ow
many examples of marvelous beauty and coloring, one
must go to the tropics to see the culmination of what nature
has done in painting the outstretched membranes of
butterfly wings with gorgeous colors. The great butterfly
tribes that swarm in tropical forests seldom reach our temperate
clime, and even when they do they are likely to
show only a suggestion of the splendid size and rich coloring
to be seen farther south. The Zebra butterfly
(Heliconius charitonius) belongs to one of these tropical
tribes. It shows its affinities by its coloring and the
curious shape of its wings. In most of our northern butterflies,
the wings are about as long as they are wide, but
in the tropical family, Heliconidae, they are very much
longer than wide. This gives the insect an entirely
different look from our common forms so that one recognizes
it at once as a stranger within our gates. Indeed, it
does not penetrate far into our region, being found commonly
only in Florida and one or two other neighboring
states, its principal home being in tropical America.

The Zebra butterfly is well named. Across the brownish
black wings there runs a series of yellow stripes, three
on each front wing and one on each hind wing, with a sub-marginal
row of white spots on each of the latter. The
under surface is much like the upper, except that the coloring
is distinctly paler. It is very variable in size: some
specimens may be but two and a half inches across the
expanded wings, while others are four inches. (See plate,
page 224.)

The Zebra caterpillars feed upon the leaves of the passion
flower. When full grown they are about an inch and
a half long, whitish, more or less marked with brownish
black spots arranged in transverse rows, and partially[Pg 231]
covered with longitudinal rows of barbed black spines.
They change to chrysalids which are remarkable for their
irregular shape, with two leaf-like projections on the head
which the insect can move in a most curious fashion.

One of the most notable things about this insect is the
fact that the male butterflies are attracted to the chrysalids
of the females even before the latter emerge. Many observers
have reported upon this curious phenomenon and
have recorded experiments demonstrating that it is a
general habit with the species.

The adult butterflies flock together at night and rest
upon the Spanish moss which festoons so many of the
trees in the Far South, or upon dead branches. They take
positions with heads upward and wings closed, many of
them often flocking together to roost, and wandering out
to the near-by fields when the morning sun gives them renewed
activity. But these butterflies are essentially
forest insects. Reliable observers have noticed that when
one emerges from a chrysalis it flies up in the air and
makes straight for the nearest woods. Others have
noticed that when a butterfly in a field is alarmed it also
makes for the woods. And in the regions where the species
is abundant the butterflies are most likely to be found in
paths and glades in the forest. Th767us they show the influence
of their ancestral habitat in the tropical wilderness.

There seems to be a certain amount of ceremony attending
the flocking together at night for roosting purposes.
A famous English naturalist, Philip Henry Gosse,
saw the performance in the West Indies many years ago
and described it in these words:

[Pg 232]

"Passing along a rocky foot-path on a steep wooded
mountain side, in the Parish of St. Elizabeth (Jamaica),
about the end of August, 1845, my attention was attracted,
just before sunset, by a swarm of these butterflies in a sort
of rocky recess, overhung by trees and creepers. They
were about twenty in number, and were dancing to and
fro, exactly in the manner of gnats, or as Hepioli play at
the side of a wood. After watching them awhile, I
noticed that some of them were resting with closed wings
at the extremities of one or two depending vines. One
after another fluttered from the group of dancers to the reposing
squadron, and alighted close to the others, so that
at length, when only two or three of the fliers were left, the
rest were collected in groups of half a dozen each, so close
together that each group might have been grasped in the
hand. When once one had alighted, it did not in general
fly again, but a new-comer, fluttering at the group, seeking
to find a place, sometimes disturbed one recently settled,
when the wings were thrown open, and one or two flew up
again. As there were no leaves on the hanging stalks, the
appearance presented by these beautiful butterflies, so
crowded together, their long, erect wings pointing in different
directions, was not a little curious. I was told by persons
residing near that every evening they thus assembled,
and that I had not seen a third part of the numbers often
collected in that spot."

So far as the great majority of readers of this book are
concerned, this family includes but one species—the familiar
Monarch or Milkweed butterfly. In the Southern
[Pg 233]
states there is another—the Queen—and in Florida, still a
third. The distinguishing characteristics are found in the
dwarfed, useless front legs and the absence of scales upon
the antennae.

From June until October one may often see the stately
Monarch flitting leisurely about over fields and meadows.
It is one of the largest and most distinctive of these "frail
children of the air" and may be easily recognized by its resemblance
to the picture opposite page 241. The veins of
the wings are heavily marked in black, with large white
dots upon the black bands along the margin. The color of
the rest of the wings both above and below is reddish
brown.

These butterflies come from the South in spring or early
summer. They find milkweed plants and lay their eggs
upon the leaves. These eggs soon hatch into small white
and black caterpillars that feed upon the milkweed leaves
and grow rapidly. One is likely to find them throughout
most of the summer, wherever a milkweed shows partially
eaten leaves. Bring in the half-grown caterpillars, place
them in an open vivarium, and furnish fresh leaves every
day or two. The caterpillars will soon mature and change
to beautiful green chrysalids with golden markings. This
chrysalis has been called "the glass house with the gold
nails." (See plates, pages 32-33, 241.)

About two weeks later the glass house will burst open
and the butterfly emerge. It will rest an hour or two while
its wings and body harden and then it will want to fly
[Pg 234]
away. It is not so anxious to do this, however, as most
butterflies. If one is kept beneath a good-sized bell-glass,
or in a glass-covered box, or even in a closed room, and fed
with sweetened water it will soon become so tame that it
will perch on one's finger and suck nectar from a flower
held in one's hand. On this account it is a particularly
desirable butterfly for the amateur photographer to cultivate,
because he can easily get many interesting and beautiful
pictures by posing the butterfly on different flowers.

The change from the caterpillar to the butterfly is
easier to watch in this species than in most others. The
full-grown caterpillar spins—sometimes on the under surface
of the milkweed leaf, sometimes elsewhere—a little
mat of silk in which it entangles the hooked claws of its
hind feet. Then it lets go with its fore feet, and hangs
downward with the front end of its body curled upward.
In this position it remains for some hours—perhaps a day—the
body juices gravitating downward and causing a
swollen appearance on the lower segments. Then the
skin splits apart and is wriggled off by the contortions of
the body. When it finally drops away, there is left a
strange-looking creature, broader below than above. This
is a transition stage that lasts but a very short time: soon
the form is entirely changed so that the broadest part is
above instead of below. The definite outline of the chrysalis
is soon taken on, the outer tissues hardening into a
distinct covering. The insect is now a beautiful green
with wonderful golden spots upon its surface and a few
black spots just below the black "cremaster" by which the
chrysalis is connected with the web of silk upon the leaf.

[Pg 235]
In this quiet chrysalis the insect remains for nearly a
fortnight. Then the structure of the forthcoming butterfly
begins to show through the thin outer covering and you
know that the period of the chrysalis is nearly ended. If
you keep watch you will probably see the sudden bursting
of the outer envelope and the quick grasping of its surface
by the legs of the newly emerged butterfly. Its wings at
first are short and crumpled, bearing little resemblance to
those of the fully developed butterfly. But as it hangs
there with one pair of legs holding to the empty chrysalis
and the other to the leaf above, the wings rapidly lengthen,
hanging limply downward, and the body juices penetrate
the veins. A little later they expand in the other direction,
the hind wings reaching full size before the front
ones do. Finally both pairs of wings are fully expanded,
and the butterfly is likely to walk to the top of the support,
where it rests for an hour or two while its tissues
harden, before it attempts to fly.

In early autumn out of doors these butterflies start
southward on their long journey. They often gather in
great flocks and roost at night on wayside shrubs and
trees. At this season it is easy to catch them in an insect
net and bring them indoors for pets. They live for a long
while and lend interest and beauty to living room or window
garden. To the photographer they offer opportunities for
attractive indoor pictures. (See plates, pages 32-33, 160,
225.)

The general form and color patterns of this fine butterfly
show at once that it is related to the Monarch. Its general
[Pg 236]
colors are chocolate-brown and black, dotted and
spotted with white. The eggs are laid upon milkweed and
the life-history is much like that of the Monarch. One of
the most interesting facts in connection with this species
is that it seems to be mimicked by the Vicereine butterfly
in the same way that the Monarch is mimicked by the
Viceroy.

One has a suggestion of Hobson's choice in the common
names of this unique family. If Snout butterflies does
not seem sufficiently elegant as a descriptive phrase for
such delicate creatures, he can call them the Long-beaks,
until he sees that this also is inadequate. As a matter of
fact both are misnomers, for the projection from the head
that gives them these names is neither a snout nor a beak.
It is simply a pair of palpi unusually developed, which
perhaps in an early stage of butterfly history served a useful
purpose. At present, however, they serve chiefly
to set the few owners apart from the other butterflies
in the system of classification; although possibly they may
also serve the butterfly by helping to give the impression
of a leaf attached to a twig. (See plate, page 240.)

There is a peculiar interest in any form of animal life
which can be definitely traced far back through the
geologic ages. In nearly every group of living creatures
[Pg 237]
there are certain types which scientists have found were
once abundant but which now are on the wane. As a rule
these are better represented in the museums through fossil
species than by those now living. To a considerable extent
also such forms are likely to present various features
which mark their primitive condition and the living allies
have peculiarities which set them off as distinct from those
of their own relations which have been modeled in a more
modern fashion. Among the mammals the curious marsupials,
of which our southern opossum is an example,
furnish good illustrations of this general truth. Among
the birds the curious little Least Bittern is an example.
Among the butterflies the strange Snout butterfly is by
far the best example.

These Snout butterflies, of which only two species are
now living in North America, are the sole representatives
with us of the family Libytheidae or the Long-beaks. Only
one of these species occurs to any extent at least north of
Texas. It is the curious little creature called the Snout
butterfly. It has a strange appearance due to the angular
outline of both front and hind wings and the long palpi
which project forward from the head in a way to attract
attention. The common name is due to these projecting
palpi. Even the coloring is primitive, the general tone
of the wings being blackish brown, distinctly marked with
white and orange spots. The under surface is less primitive
in its coloring, being toned in iridescent grayish
brown in a way to suggest protective coloring, except in
that part of each front wing which is not hidden when the
insect is at rest. This shows the white and orange-brown
markings.

Some years ago there were found in certain fossil deposits
[Pg 238]
in the West about a dozen species of fossil butterflies.
It is strange indeed that these ethereal creatures
should be fossilized at all. One would think it scarcely
possible that they could be so preserved that a million
years after they had died man should be able to study
them, determine to what families they belonged, and even
guess with a high probability of accuracy upon what leaves
their caterpillars fed. This little collection of fossil butterflies
was studied by one of the great American authorities
on living butterflies, the late Samuel H. Scudder, who
said of them: "They are generally preserved in such fair
condition that the course of the nervures and the color
patterns of the wings can be determined, and even, in
one case, the scales may be studied. As a rule, they are
so well preserved that we may feel nearly as confident concerning
their affinities with those now living as if we had
pinned specimens to examine; and, generally speaking,
the older they are the better they are preserved."

A curious fact is that out of the comparatively few
species of these fossil butterflies two were easily recognized
as members of this Long-beak family. They were given
special scientific names and undoubtedly were closely related
to the Snout butterfly which is still flying every year
in various parts of the United States. Our modern species
lays its eggs upon the leaves of hackberry and in these
geologic deposits of that far-gone era there have been
found well-preserved leaves of old hackberry trees, upon
which it is extremely probable that the caterpillars of these
ancient Long-beaks fed. What an opportunity for a
modern collector of butterflies to work his fancy, as he
thinks of those old times when these fossil creatures were
flying in the sunshine, depositing their eggs upon the
[Pg 239]
leaves of trees that made up landscape pictures probably
very different from those of to-day! And how he wonders
what flowers these butterflies visited for their nectar food,
what birds chased them from tree to tree, and what mammals
wandered through those ancient forests. What a
suggestion also it gives of the continuity of life upon our
old earth to realize that these butterflies of to-day are
carrying on their brief existence in practically the same
way that these forbears of theirs did so many millions
of years ago.

Another way in which these butterflies are peculiar is
the fact that the females have six well-developed legs while
the males have only four. As already indicated the caterpillars
feed upon hackberry. When full grown they are
about an inch long, dark green, striped with yellow,
with two blackish tubercules on the second ring behind
the head. They apparently pass the winter in the chrysalis
stage. The butterflies are likely to be found along the
borders of brooks or streams running through woods, or
along the margins of the forest. Occasionally they become
abundant in certain localities, but on the whole they are
rare and highly prized by collectors.

This small family of very small butterflies contains five
genera and a dozen species found in the United States and
Mexico. Only two, however, occur in the eastern region
and only one extends much north of the Gulf states.
Aside from certain peculiarities of the wing-venation (a
[Pg 240]
costal and a humeral vein on the hind wings) these Metal-marks
may be known by their minuteness and the bright
metallic markings on the brown wings.

Both our eastern species belong to the genus Calephelis.
The Small Metal-mark (C. caenius) has been collected
in Florida and Georgia. The wings are rusty red on both
surfaces, brighter below than above, and marked with
blackish spots that almost converge to form stripes; in
addition to which there are, beyond the middle of each
wing, two lines made by special scales that glisten with a
steel glitter. The wings expand only about three quarters
of an inch. So far as I can learn, the egg, larva, or pupa
have never been described.

The Large Metal-mark is called by science Calephelis
borealis, but it deserves the latter name only in the sense
that it is more northern than its allies. It has been collected
as far north as New York and Michigan, but it
seems to be very seldom found, at least in eastern regions.
It expands a little more than an inch. The general color
of the wings is yellowish brown, marked with blackish dots
and lines, together with rows of steely spots on the under
surface. In this case also the life-history is unknown.

[Pg 241]

The daintiest and most delicate of all our butterflies are
included among the Gossamer-wings. Their bodies are
small and slender, their antennae ringed with white and
almost threadlike, their wings thin and of exquisite beauty.
Many of them are marked with the slenderest of tailed
projections from the hind wings. When the face is viewed
from in front it is seen to be much narrower than its height.
At the insertion of the antennae the eyes are notched, and
they are also more or less surrounded with white scales.
Most of the caterpillars have oval, slug-shaped, smooth
bodies, with the under surface flattened, and very small
heads, which in many species can be extended by means
of an extensile neck. The chrysalids are held in place
by silken threads both at the tail and over the middle.
They are rounded, short, and stout.

Notwithstanding their small size, the Gossamer-wings
are among the most spritely of all our butterflies. They
seem indeed winged sprites, playing everywhere, in fields
and open woods, along roads, lanes, and brooks, in door-yards
and gardens—wherever, in fact, a bit of open space
invites their presence. Not alone upon the wing but even
when at rest does their liveliness appear. For most of
these butterflies have the curious habit of keeping the
hind wings in motion after alighting, rubbing them
against each other in a vertical plane or "moving them
backward and forward when half expanded." These
habits are so fixed that when one sees a butterfly thus
engaged one can pretty certainly conclude it is a member
of this family.

The Gossamer-wings are commonly separated into
three rather distinct tribes—the Hair-streaks, the Coppers,
and the Blues. The characteristic features are
these:

Three branches arising from the radius of each front
wing. Under surface of hind wing commonly marked
with threadlike streaks: the Hair-streaks.

Four branches arising from the radius of each front
[Pg 242]
wing. Under surface of hind wing commonly marked
with spots rather than lines.

Colors brownish red: The Coppers.

Colors blue: The Blues.

The Hair-streaks are small butterflies with the eyes
notched to allow for the insertion of the bases of the
antennae. The name is given on account of the fine,
hair-like markings which extend across the under surface
of the hind wings. In many species there is a tailed projection
or two on the hind inner margin of the hind wing.
The caterpillars are remarkable for the small head, so
connected with the body that it can be pushed forward
in a characteristic way.

The Hair-streaks are among the most exquisite and delicate
of all our butterflies. A large proportion of them
have the upper surface of the wings toned in beautiful
hues of grayish brown and the under surface lighter gray,
marked with dots and stripes, some of which are brilliant
in coloring. A few of the larger species are brilliantly
iridescent in purples, blues, and greens, marked with
black. The males have well-developed scent-pockets
in many species, these being commonly along the front
border of the front wing.

A very interesting suggestion in regard to the possible
function of the curious tail projections was made nearly a
hundred years ago by some English entomologists and has
since been discussed at considerable length in various publications.
It is that the slender tails, together with the
[Pg 243]
enlargement of the wing just back of them, give the impression
of a false head. Along with this unusual development
of the wing is to be considered the fact that these
butterflies nearly always alight head downward so that the
false head, furnished with what seem to be waving antennae,
takes the place that would naturally be occupied by
the true head. Instances have been reported in which this
false head has apparently been nipped off by a lizard and
much evidence has accumulated to indicate that this
curious device may be a real protection in many cases. Of
course, the loss of the tails and the part of the wings
adjacent would be comparatively insignificant. In most
cases, these projections on the wings are held at right
angles to the plane of the wing.

While nearly half a hundred species of Hair-streaks have
been found in North America, only a few of these are
sufficiently abundant to require discussion in this little
book.

It seems something of a reflection on the activities of
American entomologists to say that, after the lapse of
more than a century since Abbott studied the insects of
Georgia, our knowledge of the early stages of two of the
largest Hair-streak butterflies is still confined to the observations
he made. Yet this is true, and one of them—the
Great Purple Hair-streak—is the largest species of the
group that occurs in the eastern United States. The
other is the White-M Hair-streak.

[Pg 244]
The Great Purple Hair-streak is a beautiful, iridescent
blue creature, as seen from above, with blackish borders
around the blue. As seen from below, the wings are dark
brown, with red spots near the body. The two tail-like
projections are quite long. It is very large for the group
to which it belongs, measuring nearly two inches across the
expanded wings. It is a tropical form, extending into our
southern borders from California to Florida and occasionally
occurring north as far as southern Illinois. The larvae
feed on oak. (See plate, page 256.)

The White-M Hair-streak is about two thirds the size of
the Great Purple species with less blue and more black on
the upper wing surface. The hind tail is slender and well
developed, and the angle of the wing just back of it is
rounded out in an unusual fashion. The lower surface of
the wing is of a general grayish brown color, marked by a
white stripe, which takes the form of the letter M: hence
its name. This is also a southern species occurring at times
as far north as Ohio and even Atlantic City, New Jersey.
The caterpillars feed upon the leaves of oak and Astragalus
or milk vetch.

There is also a third species of this group of whose history
we are ignorant except for Abbot's observations. It
is an exquisite little butterfly called the Least Purple
Hair-streak (Calycopis cecrops) and is apparently a
tropical form which has spread into our Southern states.
It is especially beautiful because of the brilliant red and
[Pg 245]
white lines running across the under surface of both wings.
It occurs as far north as West Virginia and Kentucky and
ranges westward at least to the Mississippi Valley.

This exquisite little creature is capable of surviving
under a great variety of climatic conditions. It ranges
from New Hampshire to Florida and Central America,
but apparently occurs only rarely north of the United
States. Perhaps the most distinctive feature in the female
is the orange spot just in front of a pair of tiny tails on each
hind wing, the rear one being curiously curved and about
three times as long as the other. In the male the shorter
tail is absent. The general color of the upper surface is a
dark bluish gray, relieved on the margin of each hind wing
by a few white dots and the orange spot already mentioned.
The under surface is much lighter gray, distinctly marked
with two dark brown lines near the margin, the outer line
little more than a row of spots and the inner line with a
white edge. (See plate, page 257.)

These small butterflies lay tiny though beautiful eggs
upon a variety of plants. The eggs hatch into curious
little caterpillars that have the appearance of slugs with
small heads which can be extended as if the little creature
had really a rubber neck. The object of this extensile
head is seen when one finds the larvae feeding upon the
fruits or the seed-pods of its various food plants—hawthorn,
hop, hound's-tongue, and St. John's-wort. The
caterpillar is able to thrust its jaws into the interior of the
[Pg 246]
seed-pods and devour their contents. There seem to be
generally two broods in a season, even in the more northern
parts of its range, while toward the south there are probably
at least three broods. The butterflies are found upon
the wing almost any time in summer, especially from early
June until late in August.

This is one of the most familiar of the delicate little
butterflies grouped in the genus Thecla. It occurs rather
commonly in a great stretch of territory extending from
Maine, west to Nebraska, south to New Mexico and Texas,
and east to Alabama and Georgia. It also occurs in a
limited area on the coast of California. The general color
of the upper surface is a dark brown, which in the male is
marked near the front edge of the fore wings with a distinct
gray patch of scent scales. The under side is similar
in color to the upper except that the outer half of the wing
is marked by two series of broken lines in white, blue, and
brown and a brilliant bit of coloring just in front of the tail
projection of the hind wings; this coloring shows beautiful
tones of red, blue, and black.

These little butterflies may often be seen visiting the
midsummer flowers but are fully as likely to be found along
the sides of a shady road, where they rest upon the leaves
of trees, shrubs, and herbaceous plants. When disturbed,
they fly up in small companies but soon settle back again
into their previous positions. They are lovers of sunshine
and may often be seen upon a leaf, with fully expanded
[Pg 247]
wings, taking a sun-bath. There is but one brood a year,
butterflies appearing early in summer and remaining for
several weeks. They lay their tiny pale green eggs upon
the leaves of various trees, especially oaks and hickories,
and probably hawthorns. It is not known whether these
eggs remain unhatched as a rule until the following spring,
or whether they soon hatch and the young caterpillars
hibernate without feeding. It is probable that both conditions
occur. In spring the larvae eat holes in the leaves
of their food plant and grow rather slowly, gradually becoming
brown or green slug-like caterpillars about half an
inch long. They finally change into greenish brown
chrysalids from which the butterflies emerge in early
summer.

In the Eastern states the distribution of this species is
almost the same as that of the Banded Hair-streak, but in
the Central West the outline of its region moves northward
extending into Canada, above North Dakota, and into
Montana and Wyoming. It does not go so far south,
however, extending practically only to the southern borders
of Kansas and Missouri. The butterfly bears a striking
general resemblance to the other species just named,
differing chiefly in the fact that the under surface of the
wings is much more thickly marked with broken lines that
extend nearer to the body. As a rule, it is not common
and consequently it is prized by collectors. Some good
observers have noticed that it is more likely to be found
[Pg 248]
only on flowers, instead of sunning itself on leaves. It is
single-brooded, hibernating either in the egg state or in
that of the young larvae. The food plants are varied,
there being good evidence that the caterpillar feeds upon
all of these: apple, plum, shadbush, blueberry, holly,
chestnut, willow, thorn, and several kinds of oaks. Mr.
W. F. Fiske found a chrysalis of this species in the deserted
nest of a tent caterpillar in New Hampshire in early June,
the butterfly emerging later in the month.

This is one of the numerous butterflies that offers some
young student an opportunity to make real contributions
to science. It is a beautiful little creature, expanding
scarcely an inch across its outstretched wings, found from
New England west to Montana along a rather restricted
area, which coincides pretty closely with the southern part
of the Transition Zone. There is a form on the Pacific
Coast which is commonly considered to be this same
species.

These butterflies appear during July and August. They
visit various flowers but are especially likely to be found
near willow thickets along the borders of brooks and
swamps. It is supposed that the eggs are laid upon the
willows and that they remain unhatched until the following
spring. Then they develop into little caterpillars that
feed upon the willow leaves and mature in time to form
chrysalids early in June. These chrysalids in turn disclose
the butterfly early in July. So far as I know the eggs
[Pg 249]

themselves and the situation in which they are laid have
never been described.

Very few butterflies have the distinction of showing a
clear case of protective resemblance to one kind of plant in
both the adult and the larval stages. This is the case,
however, with this Olive Hair-streak which is so intimately
associated with our common red cedar, that where one is
found the other is likely to occur, although both caterpillars
and butterflies are seldom seen because they resemble
the twigs of the cedar so closely.

Along the Atlantic Coast this little butterfly occurs from
New Hampshire to Florida, and westward to a line drawn
from Dakota to Texas. The upper surface of the wings is
rather dark olive-brown and the under surface, so far as it
is exposed when the butterfly is resting, is of a greenish hue
that harmonizes with the green of the red cedar twigs.
There are also, on the under surface, some irregular lines
and dots of red, brown, and white which probably help in
rendering the insect inconspicuous when it is resting among
a cluster of twigs.

The yearly history of this beautiful little butterfly
differs from that of most of its relatives. The species
winters in the chrysalis state, the first brood of butterflies
bursting forth early in May. These lay their eggs upon or
between the scales of the red cedar twigs, especially those
which bear flowers. About a week later the eggs hatch
into tiny caterpillars that feed upon the scale-like leaves,
[Pg 250]
continuing to eat and grow for nearly six weeks before they
reach their full size. These caterpillars are so similar in
color that they are difficult to see, and they have a remarkable
protective device in that the first ring behind the head
is developed into a shield which covers the head, hiding it
so completely that the movement of the jaws in feeding is
effectively concealed. Late in June they change to
chrysalids, part of which appear to remain in this condition
until the following spring, while most of them give
forth a second brood of butterflies in July. These butterflies
lay eggs for a second brood of larvae that mature into
chrysalids during September, and hibernate in this condition
until the following spring. Consequently, in the
Northern states, the collector should look for fresh specimens
in May and early June and again in July and early
August.

These butterflies visit various flowers, apparently preferring
rather small blossoms, such as those of the Mouse-ear
Everlasting, which is in bloom when the first brood
is flying, and the various members of the mint family,
especially spearmint, as well as the sumacs, which are in
bloom when the second brood is on the wing. The time
between flower visits seems to be spent at rest upon the
red cedar branches, and one of the surest ways to find the
butterflies is to give these trees a sudden jar, which starts
them into flight. In fact, they may often be seen flying
around the tops of the cedars a score of feet from the
ground.

Great Purple Hair-streak (Atlides halesus or Thecla
halesus). Wing expanse 1¾ inches. Upper wing surface
[Pg 251]
bright blue with blackish margins, the blackish coloring
extending nearly to the middle in the female. Two distinct
tails on each hind wing. Under surface sepia
brown with blue and red spots. Abdomen orange below.

White-M Hair-streak (Eupsyche m-album or Thecla
m-album). Wing expanse 1¹⁄₃ inches. Upper wing surface
blue with wide blackish margins in both sexes.
Under surface marked with whitish lines suggesting the
letter M, with a reddish spot near it. Each hind wing with
two small tails.

Least Purple Hair-streak (Calycopis cecrops or Thecla
cecrops). Wing expanse 1 inch or less. Upper wing
surface dark brown, more or less marked with blue, especially
at base of front wings and inner half of hind wings.
Under wing surface marked with a brilliant red line edged
outside with white. Two very fine tails on hind wings
with brightly colored spots near their base on lower surface.

Gray Hair-streak (Uranotes melinus or Thecla melinus).
Wing expanse 1¹⁄₅ inches. Upper wing surface bluish
gray with a brilliant red spot at base of tails on hind wing.
Lower wing surface much lighter gray, each wing marked
with a brown and white stripe and a row of dots nearer
the margin.

Banded Hair-streak (Thecla calanus). Wing expanse
1¹⁄₅ inches. Upper wing surface dull dark brown, commonly
without markings although sometimes there is an
orange spot on each hind wing. Lower wing surface
a little lighter than upper with bright red and blue spots
at the base of the tiny tails, and with distinct narrow blue
and white broken bands extending across the outer half
of each wing.

[Pg 252]
Striped Hair-streak (Thecla liparops). Wing expanse
1 inch. Very similar to the Banded Hair-streak, but
having more white markings on the lower surface of the
wings.

Acadian Hair-streak (Thecla acadica). Wing expanse
1¹⁄₃ inches. Upper wing surface blackish brown with a
slaty tinge, and red spots at base of the single short
tail on each hind wing. Lower surface bluish gray with
many small blackish spots edged with white arranged in
two principal rows on the outer half of each wing. Larger
orange-red spots on each side of base of the tail on each
hind wing.

Olive Hair-streak (Mitoura damon or Thecla damon).
Wing expanse 1 inch or less. Upper wing surface olive-brown,
more yellow in the male than the female. Tips
of tiny tails on hind wing whitish. Lower surface green
except where upper wing is covered by lower: this part is
brown. The green is marked with a row of white spots
on each front wing and two distinct rows of brown and
white spots on each hind wing, with black spots between.

The members of this tribe are well characterized by
their name, for most of them show on the upper wing
surface tones of coppery brown, more or less marked
around the margin with darker shades. On the under
side of the tarsi there are numerous spines in irregular
clusters. In the chrysalis there are curious hair-like
projections on the skin, which are short and shaped like
tiny toadstools or mushrooms.

[Pg 253]
While some of the Coppers are very abundant, the
majority are rather rare. Only a few species are sufficiently
widely distributed to require description here.

In many orders of insects there are whole families
whose larvae are habitually carnivorous, feeding entirely
upon other kinds of insects. This is especially so in case
of the beetles, the flies, the true bugs, and the great order
to which the bees and wasps belong. Among the scale-winged
insects, however, carnivorous caterpillars are rare,
seldom occurring among the moths and in hardly more
than one species among the butterflies. This one exception
is the modest-looking little butterfly fancifully called
the Wanderer, perhaps because instead of frequenting
the flowery fields where other butterflies congregate it
wanders in and out among the alders by brooks and ponds,
alighting oftener upon a leaf or twig than upon a flower—the
latter apparently lacking for it the attraction it has
for other butterflies.

If you watch one of these copper-hued creatures for
awhile, however, you will soon see that its wandering
is not aimless but has rather a method all its own. Perhaps
you will see it alight upon an alder twig on or above
which you are likely to notice curious woolly white excrescences.
If you are close enough you will probably
see the butterfly uncoil its tongue and sip up a liquid on
twig or leaf—the exudations of the woolly aphids that
make up the supposed excrescence and suck the sap from
[Pg 254]
the bark. Much of this sap passes through the bodies
of the aphids and collects in liquid globules on twigs and
leaves, forming a sort of honey-dew which is much sought
after by flies, wasps, and other insects. It seems to form
the chief sustenance of these Wanderers.

But many of these butterflies have another purpose
besides that of sipping the honey-dew. Should you watch
one of the mother butterflies carefully you would be likely
to see her alight on or near a colony of woolly aphids and
run rather rapidly over them in a wasp-like manner,
finally stopping long enough to lay a tiny, roundish,
slightly flattened egg upon the twig, generally on the under
side, and only one in a place. Then she may continue
her way, wandering lazily along the alder-bordered stream.

Let us now centre our interest upon the egg. Three
or four days later it hatches into a curious caterpillar.
Instead of having mouth parts fitted for biting leaves as
is the case with most butterfly larvae, it has one fitted for
grasping, piercing, and sucking the juices of the plump
bodies of the aphids, which it finds hard by its place of
birth. It also has silk spinnerets connected with its
mouth, so it is able to spin a web to shelter it from being
run over by its intended victims.

The newly hatched larva is not slow to take advantage
of the facilities with which it is provided. It at once
begins to spin a web above and around itself, from the
end of which it reaches out for the nearest aphids, sucking
their life-blood and casting their empty skins to the discard
of its protecting web. The skins thus serve as an
additional shelter so that, as the caterpillar moves forward,
increasing the number of its victims from day to day, it
extends its web and the protection of the cast skins intermingled
[Pg 255]
with it, while through all—the cast skins, the
silken web, and even the hairs on the body of the caterpillar—there
runs a woof of the woolly excretion—effectually
concealing the larva from sight.

The woolly aphids thus serve as the sole food of the
caterpillar during its brief life as a larva. Perhaps because
of the pre-digested nature of its food, it is able to
mature much sooner than most butterfly larvae. In
about eleven days after hatching it is ready to change to a
chrysalis, having undergone during this period only three
moults, instead of at least four as with other caterpillars.
Each caterpillar then changes to a chrysalis which is remarkable
because the form and color of its back bears a
striking resemblance to the face of a miniature monkey.
It remains in this condition nearly a fortnight and then
emerges as a butterfly.

In New England and the Northern states the short life
of the larva enables this insect to mature three broods
each season. Farther south there are probably more, for
this species is widely distributed in eastern North America,
occurring from Nova Scotia to Georgia and west to
the Mississippi Valley.

This little butterfly is one of the most generally abundant
insects in the northern part of North America. It
commonly occurs from ocean to ocean, from the Hudson
Bay region to the latitude of Georgia, and it flies freely
in city parks and village yards as well as in the more open
[Pg 256]
spaces of field and forest. When seen through a lens it
is very beautifully colored, the coppery red of the wings
being overspread with conspicuous black dots and a touch
of orange around the outer border. The expanded wings
measure just about an inch, so that this is one of the
smallest of our common butterflies.

The caterpillars of the American Copper feed upon
sorrel, one of the commonest weedy plants of waste places
everywhere. The rusty red blossoms of the sorrel harmonize
in color with the color of the butterfly, which is
frequently to be seen flying slowly above the plants, stopping
now and then to lay its eggs singly upon the leaves
or stems. Each egg soon hatches into a curious caterpillar,
which looks more like a slug than the usual type of
butterfly larva. It feeds upon the succulent tissue of the
sorrel leaf, at first biting small holes in the under surface.
As it gets larger it feeds more freely and is likely to make
channels instead of holes. It matures in about three
weeks, changing into a chrysalis under the shelter of a
stone or board. A little later it again changes to a butterfly.

There is an interesting variation in the number of
broods of this butterfly each season. In regions where it
has been studied it has been found to be double-brooded
in northern New England and triple-brooded in southern
New England and the Atlantic states. It is probable
that in its far northern home in the Hudson Bay territory
it is only single-brooded. It is thought that the insect
hibernates as a chrysalis.

These little butterflies are so small and fly so near the
ground that they are likely to be overlooked by the casual
observer. They frequently alight to sun themselves or to
sip nectar from many kinds of flowers. They begin their
day's work early in the morning and continue well into
the evening. Then they find a roosting-place, head
downward upon a blade of grass, where they sleep until
wakened by the morning sunshine.

[Pg 257]

This butterfly is nearly twice as large as the American
Copper to which the female of the present species bears a
striking resemblance. The Bronze Copper is a rare species,
occurring from New England nearly to the Rocky
Mountains. The slug-shaped yellowish green caterpillar
feeds upon dock and related plants. (See plate, page 256.)

The Wanderer (Feniseca tarquinius). Wing expanse 1¼
inches. Upper wing surface tawny brown, each wing
more or less marked with dark brown spots, the distinction
between the colors being clear-cut, and the lines between
having an angular effect. Lower surface of front wings
similar in colors to upper with dark spots rectangular.
Under surface of hind wings mottled with irregular spots
of pale brown.

American Copper (Heodes hypophlaeas or Chrysophanus
hypophlaeas). Wing expanse 1 inch. Upper surface of
front wings tawny orange with margins and rectangular
spots blackish. Upper surface of hind wings coppery red
with a tawny orange band on outer margin. Lower surface
of front wings much like upper surface; that of hind
[Pg 258]
wings grayish marked with dark spots and an orange line
near the margin.

Bronze Copper (Chrysophanus thoe). Wing expanse 1½
inches. Male. Upper wing surface coppery brown
marked with dark spots and a tawny orange sub-marginal
band along outer margin of hind wings. Under surface
of front wings lighter orange with blackish spots and of
hind wings grayish with blackish spots and an orange sub-marginal
band. Female. Upper surface of front wings
tawny orange with blackish spots.

These beautiful little butterflies are well named, for
the majority of them are colored in exquisite tints of blue.
They are distinguished from the Coppers by this blue coloring,
as well as by the fact that the spines on the under
side of the tarsi are arranged in rows rather than in clusters
and are comparatively few in number. The body is
rather slender and the under surfaces of the wings are
generally dotted in a characteristic fashion. Most of the
two score or more species found in North America occur
on the Pacific Coast or in the Southwest, less than half a
dozen being common in the eastern region.

For a wee bit of a gossamer-winged creature that expands
scarcely an inch across its outstretched wings, the
[Pg 259]
Spring Azure has caused American scientists an immense
amount of patient labor. Over the vast territory from
Labrador across to Alaska and south to the Gulf of Mexico,
this little blue butterfly exists in so many different
forms that it requires special analytical keys to separate
them. Not only does it vary geographically so that in one
locality we find one form and in another a different form,
but it also varies seasonally to a marked degree. As one
would expect there is a striking difference in its annual
cycle between Labrador and the Gulf Coast. In the far
northern region there is but one brood a year, while in the
southern region there are at least two and perhaps more.

The variations in this butterfly are shown by the differences
in the marking of both surfaces of the wings. These
markings may run from a faint blackish border along the
extreme margin and a few faint dots upon the under surface,
to a wide black margin around the wings and a deep
abundant spotting of the under surface. The markings of
the various forms are so uniform that the varieties are
easily distinguished. It is beyond the scope of this book
to attempt to differentiate all these varieties but any reader
interested will find an admirable summary of the conditions
illustrated by an excellent plate in Comstock's
"How to Know the Butterflies." The species as a whole
may be known from the fact that the upper surface is blue,
the lower surface ash-gray, more or less spotted with dark
brown, and the wings are without tails. (See plate, page 256.)

A remarkable variation of the adults is sufficient to give
this species a special interest, but the larvae also have a
unique attraction for the naturalist. The mother butterflies
[Pg 260]
lay their eggs upon the flower buds of various plants,
especially those which have clustered racemes of blossoms.
These eggs hatch into minute slug-like larvae which feed
upon the buds, commonly burrowing through the calyx
lobes and devouring the undeveloped stamens and pistils
inside. They finally change to chrysalids, which are more
or less securely attached to a central flower stalk, from
which in due time the butterflies emerge. So far there is
nothing remarkable about this story of the life of the
Spring Azure, but that is yet to come.

These little caterpillars are subject to attack by tiny
parasitic flies which lay eggs in their bodies. Each egg
hatches into a still more tiny maggot that lives at the expense
of the tissues of the caterpillar and finally kills it.
When one of these little caterpillars has its head buried in
the round ball of a flower bud, about half of its body is exposed
defenseless, so that the little fly that lights upon it to
lay her egg cannot even be dislodged by the head of the
caterpillar, as is often the case with other species. There is
a very curious provision for defense, however. If you look
carefully through a lens at the hind part of the body you
will find a little opening on the back of the seventh abdominal
ring. This opening leads to a sort of tiny pocket, a
pocket which the caterpillar can turn inside out when it so
desires. Now the curious thing about it is that the caterpillar,
while this pocket is concealed in its body, is able to
secrete in it a drop of liquid which we presume to be sweet
to the taste. When the little pocket is partly filled with
this drop of liquid the caterpillar turns it inside out in such
a way that the liquid drop remains in position on top of the
protruded pocket.

Perhaps you ask what is the good of all this complicated
[Pg 261]
arrangement? If you could see what happens when the
little drop of what—for lack of a better name—we shall
call honey-dew is exposed, you would begin to guess the
reason. Wherever these larvae are found you will also
find many ants wandering round among them, and the
moment the honey-dew appears these ants begin to sip it
up. When it is all gone the little caterpillar draws in its
pocket again and presumably begins to store up another
bit of liquid. It is certainly a curious example of what the
naturalists call symbiosis, which simply means a living together
of two animals, each helping the other in some way.
In this case it is easy enough to see how the caterpillar
helps the ant, but perhaps you are wondering in what possible
way the ant may help the caterpillar. I hardly dare
give the most plausible explanation for fear some one will
cry out, "Nature-faker!" But fortunately the explanation
is based upon at least one precise observation by W.
H. Edwards, one of the most careful and reliable naturalists
America has produced, who lived before the recent era
of Nature-fakers and was never accused of sensationalism.
Mr. Edwards saw an ant drive away from one of these
caterpillars a little parasitic fly which apparently was
searching for a victim. Consequently, it would appear
that the ants helped the caterpillars by protecting them
from these arch enemies.

This is by no means an isolated example of the relations
between ants and other insects. It has been known for
hundreds of years that the ants use the aphids as a sort of
domestic milk-producer, attending the aphids at all times
and even caring for their eggs throughout the winter
season. As the plant-lice live in colonies, sucking the sap
of their host plant, they are attended by great numbers of
[Pg 262]
ants that feed upon the honey-dew which passes through
their bodies. In many cases the ants have been observed
to stroke the aphids with their antennae in a way which
seems to induce the aphid to give out a drop of the sweet
liquid for the ant to lap up. In a similar way these ants
seem sometimes to stroke these little caterpillars with their
antennae and thus to induce them to turn their little
pockets inside out with the drop of liquid at the tip. This
is certainly an unusual and most interesting relation between
two insects far separated by their structural characters.

The little pocket that I have thus described is situated
upon the seventh segment of the abdomen. Just back of
it there are two other openings which are even more
curious in their structure. These are provided with some
slender tentacles on which there are circles of hairy spurs.
These structures are a great puzzle to naturalists. It is
difficult to explain what they are for unless we assume that
they relate in some way to the honey-dew pocket on the
seventh ring. The only plausible explanation is that these
serve to advertise to the ants, by giving off a distinctive
odor, that there is nectar near at hand to be had for the
asking. They would thus be analogous in a way to the
fragrant scent of flowers which is for the purpose of advertising
to the bee the fact that nectar or pollen or both
are near at hand and may be had for the asking. In the
case of these caterpillars, however, if this is the true explanation
it is a most wonderful provision and one which
would be likely to tax the ingenuity of man's mind for a
long while before it was originated.

So this little butterfly which greets us in every spring,
like "a violet afloat," to quote Mr. Scudder's happy phrase,
[Pg 263]
is full of interest at all stages of its existence. It should
lead one to a new respect for the familiar things in the
natural world when one learns how baffling to the wits of
the wisest scientist is this little creature with its protean
forms and the wonderful structure of its caterpillars.

This beautiful little butterfly is perhaps the most
richly colored of all our northern Blues. The upper surface
of the wings in the male is a nearly uniform hue, except
for a narrow dark border around the margin. In the
female there is, in addition, a series of black-centred
orange spots inside of the black border, the series being
more prominent on the hind wings than on the front ones.
The under surface is very pale with distinct marks in
black scattered over the basal two thirds, with a row
of orange spots outside of these and another row of
small blackish spots just inside of the blackish border
stripe.

This butterfly is a northern species. It occurs in New
England, New York, and Michigan, and thence extends far
north into Canada. The caterpillar feeds upon blue
lupine and apparently the butterfly is likely to be found in
most places where this plant grows. The eggs are laid
upon the leaves or stems and the little caterpillars come
out of the shells through small holes which they have
gnawed.

"The caterpillar," wrote Mr. Scudder, "has a very extensible
head and flexible neck, and its manner of feeding
[Pg 264]
immediately after birth is rather remarkable; it pierces the
lower cuticle of the leaf, making a hole just large enough to
introduce its minute head, and then devours all the interior
of the leaf as far as it can reach—many times the
diameter of the hole—so that when the caterpillar goes
elsewhere, the leaf looks as if marked with a circular
blister, having a central nucleus; the nearly colorless membranes
of the leaf being all that is left, and at the central
entrance to the blister the upper membrane only." Later
in its life it often modifies this feeding habit somewhat, and
as it approaches full growth it is likely to devour the entire
blade of the leaf.

These larvae have the curious nectar-secreting glands on
the seventh abdominal segment which are discussed in
connection with the preceding species. Many ants are
attracted by this secretion so that it often happens that the
easiest way to find the caterpillars is to look for these
attendants. In New England there are two broods of the
butterfly, one appearing early in June and the other late in
July.

The tiny, threadlike, white-tipped tail projecting from
the hind angle of the hind wings distinguishes this species
at sight from any other found in eastern North America.
The species, however, occurs clear to the Pacific Coast
and ranges north and south over most of the northern continent.
The small slug-like caterpillar feeds upon the
flowers of various clovers and other legumes.

[Pg 265]

It would be a distinct privilege to work out the life-history
of this exquisite little butterfly. Although the adult
was described as long ago as 1842, the early stages seem
to be still unknown. The species occurs in the South
Atlantic states, extending west as far as Wisconsin.

Tailed Blue (Everes comyntas or Lycaena comyntas).
Wing expanse 1 inch or less. A slender tail projecting
from each hind wing. Upper wing surface of varying
tones of blue, the males lighter than the females. Lower
wing surface grayish white with scattered spots.

Scudder's Blue (Rusticus scudderi or Lycaena scudderi).
Wing expanse 1 inch or less. No tails on hind wings.
Eyes without hairs. Upper wing surface blue; female has
dusky margins on front wings and an orange border with
blackish spots near outer margin of the hind wings.
Lower wing surface bluish gray with many small spots.

Silvery Blue (Nomiades lygdamus or Lycaena lygdamus).
Wing expanse 1 inch. No tails on hind wings. Eyes
hairy. Upper wing surface silvery blue with dusky margins
which are broader in the female. Lower wing surface
ashy gray with many darker spots.

Spring Azure (Cyaniris ladon or Lycaena ladon). Wing
expanse 1 inch. No tails on hind wings. Eyes hairy.
Upper wing surface azure blue with black border markings
varying greatly, more pronounced in the female. Lower
wing surface slaty brown with many darker spots.

[Pg 266]

The true butterflies are so distinct in their structure and
many of their habits from the Skippers that the most careful
students of the order are pretty well agreed in making
the two great superfamilies—Papilionoidea, the true
butterflies, and Hesperioidea, the Skipper butterflies.
The latter includes these two families:

The Giant Skippers (Megathymidae).

The Common Skippers (Hesperiidae).

These insects as a whole are distinguished from the
higher butterflies by their large moth-like bodies, small
wings, hooked antennae (except in the Giant Skippers),
by having five branches of the radius vein arising from
the large central cell. The larvae spin slight cocoons in
which to pupate and the pupae are rounded rather than
angular.

The two families are readily distinguished by the differences
in their size and the structure of the antennae. The
Giant Skippers measure two inches or more across the expanded
wings and have comparatively small heads, with
the clubs of the antennae not pointed or recurved. The
Common Skippers are smaller, and have very large heads
with the antennal clubs drawn out and recurved.

[Pg 267]

Although large in size, the Giant Skippers are few in
numbers. Only one genus and five species are listed for
North America, and practically all of these are confined
to the Southwestern states and Mexico. Some of them
extend as far north as Colorado and as far east as Florida.

So far as the story of its life is concerned, the best-known
species is the Yucca-borer Skipper (Megathymus
yuccae) which was carefully studied by the late Dr. C. V.
Riley. As will be seen from the picture above which
represents the adult, natural size, this skipper has
a body so large as to suggest some of the heavy-bodied
moths. The wings are dark brown, marked with red-brown
spots and bands. They fly by day and when at
rest hold the wings erect.

These adults lay eggs upon the leaves of Spanish needle
or yucca. The eggs soon hatch into little caterpillars
which at first roll parts of the leaves into cylinders, fastening
[Pg 268]
the sides in place by silken threads, and later burrow
into the stem and root, often making a tunnel a foot
or more deep. Here the caterpillars remain until full
grown. They are then nearly four inches long and half
an inch in diameter. They now pupate in the top of
their tunnel and in due season emerge as adults.

The Skippers are the least developed of the butterflies.
They show their close relationship to the moths both by
their structure and their habits. The larvae make slight
cocoons before changing to chrysalids, and these chrysalids
are so rounded that they suggest the pupae of moths
rather than those of butterflies. The common name—Skippers—is
due to the habit of the butterflies—a jerky,
skipping flight as they wing their erratic way from flower
to flower.

In North America the Skipper family includes nearly
two hundred species grouped in about forty genera. From
this point of view it is the largest family of our butterflies,
but on account of the small size and limited range of most
of the species it has by no means the general importance
of such families as the Nymphs, the Swallowtails, or the
Pierids.

The Skippers are remarkable for the uniformity of
structure in each stage of existence. The butterflies have
small wings and large bodies. The broad head bears
large eyes without hairs, but with a tuft of curving bristles
overhanging each. The antennae are hooked at the end
[Pg 269]
and widely separated at the base. Each short palpus
has a large middle joint and a small joint at
the tip. The fore wings project out at the front
angle and the hind wings are folded along the inner
margin. There are six well-developed legs in both
sexes. The colors are chiefly various tones of
brown, dull rather than bright, and many of the forms
resemble one another so closely that it is difficult to
separate them.

The Skipper caterpillars have stout bodies and are
easily known by the constricted neck. Most of these
have the habit of making nests from the leaves of the food
plants, weaving them together with silken threads. In
a similar way each also makes a slight cocoon when it is
ready to change to a chrysalis.

The Skippers found in eastern North America are commonly
grouped into two types—the Larger Skippers and
the Smaller Skippers. The characteristics are given in
the paragraph immediately following and the one on
page 278.

The butterflies of this tribe have that part of the club
of the antenna, which is recurved, about as long as the
thicker part below it. As a rule, the abdomen is distinctly
shorter than the hind wings. The caterpillars
are rather short and thick, and the upper part of the head,
when looked at from in front, is square or roundish rather
than tapering. The chrysalids have the tongue case attached
throughout its length and stopping short of the
tips of the wing cases.

[Pg 270]

One can seldom draw hard and fast artificial lines in
nature. There are all sorts of intermediate conditions
which disturb arbitrary classifications. It might seem
simple enough to say that some insects are leaf-rollers
and others are tent-makers, but as a matter of fact in the
case of the Silver-spotted Skipper we have an insect which
starts its larval life as a leaf-roller and finishes it as a tent-maker.
Its life-history is rather interesting and easily
observed, if one can find the larvae at work upon the
leaves of locusts and other trees. (See plates, pages 272-273.)

The Silver-spotted Skipper is one of the largest butterflies
of the interesting group to which it belongs. It lays
its eggs upon the upper surface of the leaflets of locusts
and other plants of the legume family. In less than a
week each egg hatches into a little caterpillar with a very
large head and a comparatively large body, tapering
rapidly toward the hind end. This little creature cuts
out from one side of the leaf a small round flap which it
turns over and binds in place by silken threads to make a
home for itself. This little home shows considerable
variation in its construction but it usually has an arched
dome held in place by strands of silk running from the
eaten fragment to the surface of the leaf. It remains an
occupant of this home until after the second moult.
About this time it becomes too large for its house and
deserts it to make a new one generally by fastening together
two adjacent leaves. These are attached along
the edges by silken strands in such a way as to give considerable
[Pg 271]
room. It leaves one end open as a door out of
which the caterpillar crawls to feed at night upon near-by
leaves, returning to the house for shelter during the day.
They continue to use this habitation until they are
full grown as caterpillars and sometimes they change to
chrysalids within it. More commonly, however, they
crawl away both from the leafy case and the tree that
bears it and find such shelter as they can upon the ground
near by. Here they spin slight silken cocoons within
which they change to chrysalids. In the more Northern
states there is but one brood a year, so these chrysalids
remain in position until early the following summer when
they come forth as butterflies. Farther south there are
two broods each summer, the second brood of butterflies
appearing chiefly in August.

The Silver-spotted Skipper derives its name from the
distinct silvery spots upon the under-wing surface against
a background of dark brown. The butterflies appear in
the Northern states early in June and remain upon the
wing for several weeks, being found even in August.
They fly very rapidly and are difficult to catch in an insect
net except when they are visiting flowers.

This species is widely distributed, occurring from ocean
to ocean over nearly the whole of the United States. It
extends into Canada only in the eastern part and is not
found in the Northwestern states.

This is perhaps the most easily recognized of all the
Skippers found in the United States for it is the only one
[Pg 272]
that looks like a Swallowtail. Its hind wings project
backward as long, broad tails in a way that marks the insect
at once as different from anything else. It expands
nearly two inches and when the front wings are spread at
right angles, the distance from the apex of the front wing
to the end of the tail of the hind wing just about equals
the expanse. The general color is dark brown, with about
eight more or less rectangular silvery spots on each front
wing.

This is distinctly a tropical species which is common
along the Gulf Coast from Mexico to Florida. It ranges
north along the Atlantic Coast to New York City and
even to Connecticut. In the South Atlantic states it is
common, but toward the northern limits of its range it is
very rare.

In the West Indies this butterfly is very common and
has been observed to rest with its wings vertical, the
front ones held far back between the hind ones and the
tails of the latter held at right angles to the plane of the
wings. Apparently, this curious fact was first noted by
Dr. G. B. Longstaff. Of course in museum specimens
the wings have been flattened into the same plane during
the process of drying, so that this peculiarity would not
be noticed.

[Pg 273]

There are few trees which have so interesting a set of
insects attacking them as does the oak. It would be a
simple matter to find abundant material for a large volume
by making a study of the life-histories of the various
insects that live upon or within the various tissues of this
tree. The leaves alone provide a home for a remarkably
large number of insect species scattered through a great
many orders and families. The thickened blades seem to
furnish an ideal opportunity for many larvae to get their
living, and they are particularly useful to those which need
to make a winter nest.

By a little searching almost any time after the middle
of June, one is likely to find a curious caterpillar home
upon some of the oak leaves. The margin of the blade
has been turned over, generally from above downward but
sometimes from below upward, and has been fastened
down to the main expanse of the blade by means of golden
threads; commonly this fastening is not continuous but is
more or less intermittent, so that the turned-over margin
is likely to have an irregular border where it joins the
blade. Inside of this tubular construction a rather unusual
looking worm-like caterpillar is probably to be seen.
Late in the season it will probably be nearly an inch long,
with a smooth greenish body and a head that may be a bit
brownish and more or less marked on the sides with
orange tones.

This is the larva of one of the most widely distributed
Skippers—Juvenal's Dusky-wing. The species is found
from southern New Hampshire west to the Great Plains
and south to the Gulf of Mexico. In most localities it is
seldom abundant but yet is so general that it may be
found by almost every persistent collector. The wings
expand about an inch and a half and are of a dull brownish
color, more or less marked with darker and lighter spots.
Toward the northern limits of its range there is but one
brood a year but farther south there are two, although it
[Pg 274]
is not improbable that some of the caterpillars of the first
brood remain unchanged throughout the season, so that
the insect is both single- and double-brooded in the same
locality.

The yearly cycle in southern New Hampshire may be
taken as an illustration of the life of the species in regions
where there is but one brood. The butterflies appear in
open woods and on cut-over lands in May and June. They
lay eggs upon the twigs of oak trees, one egg in a place and
generally near a leaf stem. The egg soon hatches into a
little caterpillar that crawls upon a near-by leaf and
begins the construction of its tubular nest by bending over
the margin and sewing it with golden silk. It utilizes this
nest chiefly as a tent for resting and sleeping and wanders
away from it generally to another leaf when it is ready to
feed. It grows very slowly, having before it all the weeks
of summer to complete its caterpillar growth. As it gets
larger it needs a new tent and is likely to desert its early
one. When it does this some observers have noted a
curious habit. It cuts loose all the silk that binds the
margin of the leaf down upon the blade so that the flap is
free to spring back to its original position. It would be
difficult to suggest an adequate explanation for this
habit.

When autumn comes our caterpillar is faced with the
problem of passing through the winter successfully. It
must shelter itself from birds, spiders, predaceous beetles,
and many other enemies. It must find a means of keeping
out of the reach of snow and rain, for while it can survive a
great degree of cold as long as it keeps dry, it might easily
[Pg 275]
be killed by freezing up with moisture. But the caterpillar
is able to provide against these dangers. It has
apparently an abundant supply of liquid silk to secrete
from the silk glands in its head, so it lines its tubular tent
with a dense silken web that effectually excludes enemies
and moisture. It thus has on the outside of its nest the
thick oak leaf and on the inside a dense soft lining that
makes a most admirable winter protection. So it remains
here throughout the winter, the leaf commonly staying on
the tree until early spring. Then leaf, nest, and enclosed
caterpillar are likely to drop to the ground to remain until
spring arrives in earnest. Just what happens then seems
to be a bit doubtful. The caterpillar changes to a
chrysalis, but whether it first works its way out of its
winter nest and makes a new and less dense covering seems
not to be certainly known. Here is another good opportunity
for some careful observations.

At any rate, the caterpillar changes to a chrysalis, and
late in spring it changes again to an adult butterfly that
flits about on dusky wing for a few weeks before it
dies.

The appearance of this butterfly both as to size and
marking is very similar to that of Juvenal's Dusky-wing
except that the white spots are not present on the front
wing of this species. The life-histories of the two species
as well as their distribution seem to be closely parallel.
The present butterflies are to be found early in summer in
[Pg 276]
the same oak barrens as the other, the blueberry blossoms
being freely visited for nectar by both species.

This is a rather small, dark brown Skipper, with a few
white spots toward the apex of the front wing, but otherwise
not marked except for a very pale transverse band
which is almost obsolete. The butterfly is found from
ocean to ocean along the northern tier of states. It also
occurs in the Eastern states as far south as Florida as well
as in the states along the Pacific Coast.

The food plants of the caterpillars differ from most of
those of the other Skippers. The butterflies lay their
yellowish green eggs, one in a place, upon the leaves of
willows and poplars. These soon hatch into little caterpillars
each of which cuts out a small flap along the margin
of the leaf and folds it over, fastening it in place with silken
threads. It thus forms a protecting nest within which it
remains during the day, going forth at night to a neighboring
part of the same leaf or to another leaf, and feeding
upon the green surface tissues. In this first caterpillar
stage it does not eat the veins to any extent. As it becomes
larger it constructs a larger nest and feeds more
freely upon the leaf tissues. When about half grown it has
the curious habit of biting out small holes here and there in
the blade so that the leaf takes on a very unusual appearance.
The presence of these holes is generally the easiest
way to find the caterpillars, for when the holes are seen, a
[Pg 277]
little searching is likely to show one the characteristic tent-like
nest.

After a few weeks the caterpillars become full grown.
They then sew themselves in for the winter, fastening all
of the crevices in the nest so securely with silken webbing
that a very serviceable winter cocoon is formed. An interesting
fact is that this sewing up for the winter is likely
to take place about midsummer, the caterpillars remaining
quiet from this time until the following spring. The
nests of course fall in autumn with the leaves and the
caterpillars remain unchanged until April or May, when
they transform into chrysalids to emerge in May as butterflies.
There appears to be normally but one brood a year
although there is some evidence of a partial second brood.

This is one of the smallest of the blackish Skippers and
may be known by its small size, expanding less than an
inch, and the series of five white dots near the apex of
the front wing, these dots being more distinct on the under
surface. The species is widely distributed, occurring over
practically the whole of the United States, except in the
states along the Canadian border from Wisconsin west—and
in several of these it is found along their southern
limits.

This butterfly is of particular interest because it is one
of the comparatively few species that habitually occur in
gardens and cultivated fields. The reason for this is that
the eggs are laid upon white pigweed or lambs' quarter,
[Pg 278]
the common garden pest of the genus Chenopodium. The
eggs are laid singly, generally on the upper surface, and
hatch in about five days into tiny caterpillars that make a
little shelter for themselves by cutting out the edge of a
leaf and folding over the blade, sewing it in place by a few
silken threads. Here they remain and feed upon the green
pulp of the succulent leaves either within the nest or
near by outside. They remain in these cases until the
time for the first moult, when they are likely to line the inside
of the silken web before moulting. After this they
make new cases for concealment and shelter, the cases as
they grow older being generally made of two or more
leaves securely bound together by silken web along their
margin. When they become full grown, they spin a silken
cocoon and change to yellowish green chrysalids from
which the butterflies emerge a little more than a week later.

This species is supposed to be double-brooded in the
north. The full-grown caterpillars of the second brood
sew up their leafy cases very carefully, making them of
such thick silken webbing that they are watertight.
They remain in these coverings until the following spring,
when each changes, still within the case, into a chrysalis
from which the butterfly comes forth in April or May.

In the members of this tribe the tip beyond the club
of the antenna is short and the abdomen is long enough to
extend as far as or farther than the hind wings. The
caterpillars have long and slender bodies with the upper
part of the head, when looked at from in front, tapering
[Pg 279]
rather than roundish or square. The chrysalids have the
tongue-case free at the tip and projecting beyond the tips
of the wing-cases.

This is one of the commonest and most widely distributed
of all our Skippers. It is found from Nova Scotia to
British Columbia, south along the Rocky Mountains to
New Mexico, Texas, and Florida. It is apparently absent
west of the Rocky Mountains and along the Gulf Coast
except in Florida. Its life-history was carefully worked
out by Dr. James Fletcher, late entomologist to the
Dominion of Canada, and in the north may be summarized
thus: the butterflies come from the hibernated chrysalids
in May or June. They remain upon the wing for several
weeks so that worn specimens may be taken late in July
or, rarely, even early in August. The females lay eggs
upon grass blades. These eggs hatch about two weeks
later, the larvae eating their way out of the shells so slowly
that a whole day may be taken up by the operation. Each
little caterpillar weaves a silken nest for itself, in which it
remains concealed most of the time, reaching out to feed
upon adjacent blades of grass but retiring into the nest at
the least alarm. It is a sluggish little creature and grows
so slowly that in the north it may require more than two
months to become full fed as a larva. It is then about
an inch long and has the characteristic outlines of the
other Skipper larvae, with a black head and a greenish
brown body. It now spins a cocoon, possibly using its
[Pg 280]
larval nest as a basis, and some time later, before cold
weather surely, it changes to a chrysalis that winters over.

This is the story of the life of the butterfly in the more
northern parts of its range. Even in New Hampshire
there seems to be at least a partial second brood, and
farther south there are probably two regular broods with
the possibility that a small percentage of the first set of
chrysalids remains unchanged until spring.

This little butterfly is found apparently in most parts
of the United States, as it has been collected in New England,
California, Texas, and many intermediate points.
Over the northern part of its range there is but one brood
a year. In New Hampshire the butterflies appear in
May and early June and lay eggs upon the blades of various
grasses. These hatch about ten days later into slender,
silk-spinning caterpillars, each of which makes a nest
for itself by sewing together the margin of one or more
grass blades. When the larvae get larger, they make
larger and denser nests with heavy linings of silken web.
After the earlier moults, the thin skin is covered with very
fine snow-white hairs, between which there is developed a
curious whitish exudation, so that the caterpillars have a
flocculent appearance. When full grown, they change
to delicate green chrysalids which apparently in the North
remain until the following spring before disclosing the
butterflies. In more southern regions there are two broods
each summer.

[Pg 281]

The Least Skipper differs from the other Skippers both
in structure and habits. Most of these butterflies have
thick bodies and a distinct hook at the end of each antenna.
This has a slender body and the antennae lack the hook.
Most Skippers have strong wings and show their strength
in their rapid, erratic flight. This has feeble wings that
show their weakness in their slow, straight flight. But
from the fact that it is about the smallest of all our butterflies,
expanding little more than three quarters of an inch,
it deserves our interested attention. The tawny wings
are so marked with broad margins of dark brown that they
show the tawny tinge chiefly in the middle spaces.

On account of its small size and its retiring habits this
little butterfly is often overlooked by all but the most experienced
collectors. It generally flies slowly just above
the grass in sunny places in wet meadows and along the
open margins of brooks and marshes. It rests frequently
upon grasses, flowers, or bushes. Mr. Scudder noticed
that when resting these butterflies have the curious habit
of "moving their antennae in a small circle, the motion of
the two alternating; that is, when one is moving in a forward
direction, the other is passing in a reverse direction."
This is the sort of observation that should challenge us all
to sharper wits in watching living butterflies. It would
be strange if no others thus twirled their feelers in their
leisure moments. Who will find out?

The female butterflies at least have something to do
besides sipping the nectar of flowers or idly twirling their
[Pg 282]
feelers. They must lay their eggs and thus provide for
the continuation of the species; to do this they find suitable
blades of grass on which they deposit their tiny, half-round,
smooth yellow eggs. A week or so later each
egg hatches into a dumpy little yellow caterpillar with a
black head and a body well covered with hairy bristles.
This little creature is a silk spinner and makes a home instinctively
by drawing together more or less the outer
edges of a leaf blade and fastening them with transverse
bands of silk. It then feeds upon the green tissues and
as it grows larger it makes its nest more secure by thicker
walls of silken web.

When full grown as a caterpillar it changes into a slender
chrysalis generally of a grayish red color, thickly dotted
with black. About ten days later it emerges as a butterfly.

The Least Skipper is one of the most widely distributed
of all butterflies. It occurs from New England to Texas,
south to Florida on the east coast, and west to the Rocky
Mountains.

[Pg 283]

Abdomen, 4

Acadian hair-streak, 248

Admiral, Red, 160

Aestivation, 21-22

Agapetidae, 214-229

Aglais milberti, 182

Ajax, 77

Amblyscirtes vialis, 280

American copper, 255

American tortoise-shell, 182

Anatomy of butterflies, 3-5

Ancyloxipha numitor, 281

Androconia, 15

Angle-wings, Synopsis of the, 190

Angle-wings, Tribe of the, 150-192

Anoea andria, 208

Anosia berenice, 235

Anosia plexippus, 233

Antennae, 3-4

Anthocaris genutia, 97

Anthocaris olympia, 97

Antiopa, 112-115, 171-182

Ants and caterpillar, 261

Aphids, 261

Apparatus for collectors, 51-54

Araulis vanillae, 115

Arctic satyr, 225

Argynnis aphrodite, 125

Argynnis atlantis, 126

Argynnis cybele, 122

Argynnis diana, 118

Argynnis idalia, 120

Argynnis montinus, 127

Atlides halesus, 243



Baltimore checker-spot, 135

Banded hair-streak, 246

Banded purple, 202

Basilarchia archippus, 195-202

Basilarchia arthemis, 202

Basilarchia astyanax, 204

Basilarchia floridensis, 206

Black-bordered yellow, 105

Black swallowtail, 59

Blue-eyed grayling, 215

Blue swallowtail, 65

Blues, Synopsis of the, 265

Blues, Tribe of the, 258-265

Brenthis bellona, 128

Brenthis myrina, 131

Brimstone butterfly, 98

Bronze copper, 257

Brown, Eyed, 221

Brown, Gemmed, 227

Buckeye, 188

Butterflies, Aestivation of, 21-22

Butterflies, Anatomy of, 3-5

Butterflies and Moths, Difference between, 13-14

Butterflies, Classifications of, 55

Butterflies, Collecting, 49-54

Butterflies, Coloration of, 24-35

Butterflies, feigning death, 22-23

Butterflies, General characteristics of 3-54

Butterflies, Hibernation of, 17-21

Butterflies, Migrations of, 16-17

Butterflies, Parasites of, 40-43

Butterflies, Photographing, 47-48

Butterflies, Rearing of, 43-47

Butterflies, Scents of, 15



Cabbage butterfly, Southern, 88

Cabbage butterfly, White or Imported, 83

Callidrayas eubule, 98

Calosoma scrutator, 181

Calycopis cecrops, 251

Camberwell beauty, see Mourning-cloak

Carolina satyr, 227

Caterpillar cages, 44

Caterpillar collecting, 44

Caterpillar habits, curious, 198

Caterpillar hunter, 181

Caterpillar parasites, 260

Caterpillar to chrysalis, 8-10

Caterpillars, 5-9

Catopsilia eubule, c. philea, or c. agarithe, 109

Cercyonis alope, 215, 228

Cercyonis pegala, 218

Chalcid flies, 42

Charidryas nycteis, 141

Checker-spot, Baltimore, 135

Checker-spot, Harris's, 140

Checkered white, 88

Chlorippe celtis, 210

Chlorippe clyton, 212

Chrysalis, 8-12

Chrysalis to butterfly, 10-13

Chrysophanus hypophlaeus, 257

Chrysophanus thoë, 257

Cinclidia harrisii, 140

Cissia eurytus, 226

Cissia sosybius, 227

Classification of butterflies, 55

Clouded sulphur, 101

Cloudless sulphur, 98

Colias caesonia, 110

Colias eurytheme, 110

Colias philodice, 110

[Pg 284]
Collecting butterflies, 49-54

Color changes, 7

Color sense, Selective 32

Coloration, 24-35

Comma, 153

Common skippers, 268-282

Common wood nymph, 215

Compton tortoise, 185

Copper, The American, 255

Copper, The Bronze, 257

Coppers, Synopsis of the, 257

Coppers, Tribe of the, 252-258

Cosmopolite, 166-171

Counter-shading, 24-25

Cremaster, 8

Crescent-spots, Synopsis of the, 149

Crescent-spots, Tribe of the, 135-150

Cyanide bottle, 51

Cyaniris ladon, 258

Cynthia atalanta, 191

Cynthia cardui, 191

Cynthia kuntera, 191

Cynthia Moth, 14



Dainty sulphur, 109

Dazzling coloration, 26-29

Death-feigning, 22-23

Debis portlandia, 227

Diana fritillary, 118

Dog's-head butterfly, 100

Drying box, 54

Dull-eyed grayling, 228

Dusky-wing, Juvenal's, 272

Dusky-wing, Persius's, 276

Dusky-wing, Sleepy, 275



Eclipsing coloration, 26-29

Eclosion, 11

Egg-laying, 46

Emperors, Tribe of, 207-214

Encasement theory, 9

Enodia portlandica, 219

Envelopes for collectors, 52

Epargyreus tityrus, 270

Euchloe genutia, 97

Euchloe olympia, 97

Eudamus proteus, 271

Eugonia J-album, 185

Euphydryas phaeton, 135

Eupsyche M-album, 244

Euptoieta claudia 116

Eurema euterpe, 111

Eurema lisa, 106

Eurema nicippe, 105

Eurymus eurytheme, 102

Eurymus interior, 104

Eurymus philodice, 101

Euvanessa antiopa, 191

Everes comyntas, 264

Exuviae, 6

Eyed brown, 221



Falcate orange-tip, 94

Fenisequa tarquinius, 253

Fritillaries, Synopsis of the, 133

Fritillaries, Tribe of the, 115-135



Gemmed brown, 227

Georgia satyr, 227

Giant skippers, 267-268

Giant swallowtail, 62

Goatweed emperor, 208

Gossamer-wings, 240-265

Grapta comma, 190

Grapta faunus, 190

Grapta interrogationis, 190

Grapta J-album, 192

Grapta progne, 191

Gray comma, 158

Gray emperor, 210

Gray hair-streak, 245

Gray-veined white, 86

Grayling, Blue-eyed, 215

Great purple hair-streak, 243

Great southern white, 90

Great spangled fritillary, 122

Green-clouded swallowtail, 67

Green comma, 159

Gulf fritillary, 115



Hair-streaks, Synopsis of the, 250

Hair-streaks, Tribe of the, 242-252

Harris's checker-spot, 140

Heliconians, 229-232

Heliconidae, 229-232

Heliconius Charitonius, 229

Heliotropism, 35-37

Heodes hypophlaeus, 255

Hesperiidae, 268-282

Hesperioidea, 55, 266-282

Hibernation, 17-21

Honey-dew, 261

Hop merchant, 153

Hypatus bachmani, 236



Ichneumon flies, 41-42

Imago, 10

Imported cabbage butterfly, 83

Iphiclides ajax, 76



Junonia coenia, 188

Juvenal's dusky-wing, 272



Killing bottle, 51



Laertias philenor, 65

Larger Skippers, Tribe of the, 269-278

Least purple hair-streak, 251

Least skipper, 281

Lepidoptera, see Butterflies

Libytheidae, 236-239

Limenitis arthemis, 206

Limenitis astyanax, 207

Limenitis disippus, 207

List observations, 37-40

Little sulphur, 106

Little wood nymph, 228

Little wood satyr, 226

Locusts, Coloration of, 29

Long-beaks, The, 236-239

Long-tailed skipper, 271

Lycaena comyntas, 265

Lycaena ladon, 265

Lycaena lygdamus, 265

Lycaena scudderi, 265

Lycaenidae, 240-265

[Pg 285]
Lymnadidae, 232-236



Marcellus, 77

Maritime grayling, 228

Meadow-browns, The, 214-229

Meadow fritillary, 128

Meganostoma caesonia, 100

Megathymidæ, 267-268

Megathymus yuccae, 267

Melitaea harrisii, M. phaeton, M. nycteis, or M. tharos, 149

Metal-marks, The, 239-240

Microgaster, 42

Migrations, 16-17

Milkweed butterflies, The, 232-236

Mimicry, 34-35

Mitoura damon, 249

Monarch, The, 12, 233

Moths, 13-14

Moulting, 6-7

Mountain silver-spot, 126

Mourning-cloak, 112-115, 171-182



Nathalis iole, 109

Neonympha canthus, 227

Neonympha eurytus, 228

Neonympha gemma, 227

Neonympha phocion, 227

Net, Butterfly, 51

Nettle butterfly, 160

Nomiades lygdamus, 265

Nymphalidae, 111, 214

Nymphs, The, 111, 214



Odors, see Scents of butterflies

Oeneis norna jutta, 225

Oeneis norna semidea, 222

Olive hair-streak, 249

Olympian orange-tip, 96

"Orange dogs", 63

Orange sulphur, 102

Orange-tips, Synopsis of the, 97

Orange-tips, Tribe of the, 92-97

Orientation, see Heliotropism



Painted beauty, 163

Painted lady, 166-171

Palamedes swallowtail, 76

Palpi, 4

Papilio asterias, 81

Papilio brevicauda, 75

Papilio cresphontes, 80

Papilio glaucus, 72

Papilio palamedes, 76

Papilio philenor, 81

Papilio polyxenes, 59

Papilio thoas, 62

Papilio troilus, 67

Papilionidae, 57-81

Papilionoidea, 55, 265

Parasites, 40-43

Parasites of the Mourning-cloak, 177

Parnassians, 56-57

Parnassiidae, 56-57

Pearl crescent, 143

Pearly eye, 219

Persius's dusky-wing, 276

Pholisora catullus, 277

Photographing butterflies, 47-48

Phyciodes nycteis, 149

Phyciodes tharos, 143

Pieridae, 82-115

Pieris napi, 86

Pieris phileta, 92

Pieris protodice, 91

Pieris rapae, 83

Pink-edged sulphur, 104

Pins for collectors, 53

Polygonia comma, 153

Polygonia faunus, 159

Polygonia interrogationis, 150

Polygonia progne, 158

Polygonias, Synopsis of, 190

Pontia monuste, 90

Pontia protodice, 88

Protective coloration, see Coloration

Purple hair-streak, Great, 243

Purple hair-streak, Least, 251

Purples, Banded and Red-spotted, 202-206

Pyrameis atalanta, 191

Pyrameis cardui, 191

Pyrameis huntera, 191

Pyrrhanea andria, 214



Queen, The, 235



Rearing butterflies, 43-47

Red Admiral, 160

Red-horns, Tribe of the, 97-115

Red-spotted purple, 204

Regal fritillary, 120

Riker mounts, 54

Riodinidae, 239-240

Roadside skipper, 280

Rusticus scudderi, 263



Satyr, Arctic, 225

Satyr, Little wood, 226

Satyrodes canthus, 221

Satyrs, The, 214-229

Satyrs, Georgia and Carolina, 227

Scents of butterflies, 15

Scudder's blue, 263

Selective color sense, 32-33

Setting board, 52-53

Shadow observations, 37-40

Short-tailed papilio, 75

Silver-bordered fritillary, 131

Silver crescent, 141

Silver-spot fritillary, 125

Silver-spotted skipper, 270

Silvery blue, 265

Skippers, 55, 266-282

Skippers, Common, 268-282

Skippers, Tribe of the larger, 269-278

Skippers, Tribe of the smaller, 278-282

Sleepy dusky-wing, 275

Smaller skippers, Tribe of the, 278-282

Snout butterflies, The, 236-239

Sooty wing, The, 277

Southern cabbage butterfly, 88

Southern wood nymph, 218

Sovereigns, Synopsis of the, 206

Sovereigns, Tribe of the, 192-207

Spring azure, 258

Striped hair-streak, 247

Sulphur butterflies, 98-100, 101-105, 106-109

[Pg 286]
Swallowtails, 57-81

Swallowtails, Synopsis of, 80

Synchloe genutia, 94

Synchloe olympia, 96



Tachina flies, 42-43

Tailed blue, 264

Tawny-edged skipper, 279

Tawny emperor, 212

Telamonides, 77

Terias lisa, 110

Terias nicippe, 110

Thanaos brizo, 275

Thanaos juvenalis, 272

Thanaos persius, 276

Thecla acadica, 248

Thecla calanus, 246

Thecla cecrops, 251

Thecla damon, 252

Thecla halesus, 250

Thecla liparops, 247

Thecla M-album, 251

Thecla melinus, 251

Thistle butterfly, 166-171

Thorax, 4

Thymelicus cernes, 279

Tiger swallowtail, 72

Tortoise-shell, American, 182

Transformations, 5-13



Uranotes melinus, 245



Vanessa antiopa, 171-182

Vanessa atalanta, 160

Vanessa cardui, 166-171

Vanessa coenia, 192

Vanessa huntera, 163

Vanessa J-album, 192

Vanessa milberti, 191

Vanessids, Synopsis of, 191

Variegated fritillary, 116

Vicereine, 206

Viceroy, 195-202

Violet-tip, 150



Wanderer, The, 253

Warning coloration, 33-34

Weismann's theory, 10

White cabbage butterfly, 83

White J butterfly, 185

White M hair-streak, 244

White Mountain butterfly, 222

White Mountain fritillary, 127

Whites, Synopsis of the, 91

Whites, Tribe of the, 82-92

Wing expansion, 12-13

Wood nymph, Little, 228

Wood nymphs, 215-218



Xanthidia lisa, 110

Xanthidia nicippe, 110



Yellow edge, see Mourning-cloak

Yellows, Synopsis of the, 109

Yellows, Tribe of the, 97-115

Yucca-borer skipper, 267



Zebra butterfly, 229

Zebra swallowtail, 76

Zerene caesonia, 110