Frontispiece. General view of water yards and ducklings on a large Long Island duck farm. (Photograph
from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.)

DUCKS AND GEESE

BY

HARRY M. LAMON

SENIOR POULTRYMAN, BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY, UNITED STATES

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

AND

ROB R. SLOCUM

POULTRYMAN, BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY, UNITED STATES

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

Authors of

"The Mating and Breeding of Poultry"

and "Turkey Raising"

ILLUSTRATED

NEW YORK

ORANGE JUDD PUBLISHING COMPANY

LONDON

KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH, TRÜBNER & CO., LIMITED

1922

Copyright, 1922, by

Orange Judd Publishing Company

All Rights Reserved

PRINTED IN U. S. A.
[Pg v]

PREFACE

Of all lines of poultry keeping, duck raising is
unique in that it lends itself to the greatest degree
of specialization and intensification along lines
which are purely commercial. On a comparatively
small area thousands of ducklings can be reared and
marketed yearly. The call for information concerning
the methods used by these commercial duck
raisers has been considerable, and since such information
is not available in complete concise form
the present book has been prepared partly to furnish
just this information.

The methods used by successful Long Island duck
raisers differ widely in some particulars and since
in the space at command, it has been impossible to
describe all the methods used, the plan has been
adopted of detailing in the main the methods of one
successful grower. This it is believed will prove to
be more helpful and less confusing than to attempt
to give the method of several different men.

Much space has been given to the operations of
the commercial duck raisers but the fact is recognized
that the great bulk of the ducks entering into
[Pg vi]the trade of the country is the product of small
flocks kept on general farms. For this reason a
chapter has been added dealing with duck raising
on the farm, and attention is here called to the fact
that most of the information given under commercial
duck raising can be readily adapted to use in
connection with the farm flock.

Detailed, complete information on goose raising
is even more fragmentary than is the case with
ducks. Yet there is a fine opportunity to rear a few
geese at a profit on many farms, and the need and
call for information is quite general. It is for this
reason that a section of this book has been devoted
to goose raising and in that section all the good reliable
information available on the subject is given.
The special attention of the women of the farm is
directed to the opportunity which goose raising offers
to make a good profit on a small side line with
the minimum of initial investment and of labor.

The greatest care has been taken to make the information
on both duck and goose raising as complete
and clear as possible. However, the authors
appreciate the unlimited value of good illustrations
in making clear methods and operations which are
more difficult to grasp from a word description, and
have therefore assembled a set of illustrations for
this book, the completeness and excellence of which
have never before been approached in any book on
the subject. The illustrations alone are an education.

In preparing and presenting this book to the public,
the authors take pleasure in acknowledging[Pg vii]
their deep indebtedness to the following persons for
help and information furnished:

• Roy E. Pardee


• John C. Kriner


• Charles McClave


• Stanley Mason


• Dr. Balliet


• William Minnich


• George W. Hackett


• Dawson Brothers

Particular acknowledgment is due Robert A. Tuttle
for the manner in which he threw open his duck
plant to the authors and for the most generous
amount of time which he gave in furnishing information.

Special acknowledgment is likewise due Alfred
R. Lee, Poultryman, U. S. Department of Agriculture,
for information secured from his Farmers' Bulletins
on duck raising and goose raising.

[Pg ix]

TABLE OF CONTENTS

[Pg xiii]

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

[Pg 1]

DUCKS


PART I

[Pg 3]

CHAPTER I


Present Extent of the Industry

Duck raising while representing an industry of
considerable value to the United States when considered
from a national standpoint, is one of the minor
branches of the poultry industry. According to the
1920 census there were 2,817,624 ducks in the United
States with a valuation of $3,373,966. As compared
with this the census for 1910 shows a slightly greater
number of ducks, 2,906,525, but their value was considerably
less being only $1,567,164. In the ten
years between the census of 1900 and that of 1910
there was a decrease in the number of ducks of
nearly 40%.

According to the 1920 census the more important
duck raising states arranged in their order of importance
were Iowa, Illinois, Pennsylvania, New
York, Missouri, Minnesota, Tennessee, Ohio, South
Dakota, Indiana, Nebraska and Kentucky. The number
reported for Iowa was 235,249 and for Kentucky
99,577. New England, the North Atlantic, the East
North Central, the West North Central, the Moun[Pg 4]tain
and the Pacific states showed an increase, while
the South Atlantic, East South Central and West
South Central states showed a decrease. In spite of
the existence of quite a number of large commercial
duck farms, the great bulk of ducks produced are
those which come from the general farms where
only small flocks are kept. Yet only a small proportion
of farms have ducks on them. The comparatively
small number of ducks is distributed over
practically the entire United States, being more common
in some sections than others, particularly along
the Atlantic Coast and along the Pacific Coast, with
fairly numerous flocks on the farms of the Middle
West.

Different Types of Duck Raising. The conditions
under which ducks are kept and the purpose for
which they are kept fall under four heads: First,
commercial duck raising for the production of duck
meat; second, duck raising as a by-product of the
general farm; third, duck raising for egg production;
fourth, duck breeding for pleasure, exhibition
or the sale of breeding stock.

Opportunities for Duck Raising. Undoubtedly the
greatest opportunity for profitable duck growing
lies under the first of these heads, namely, commercial
duck raising. Where the conditions of climate,
soil and land are favorable and where the location
is good with respect to market there exists an excellent
opportunity for one skilled in duck growing
to engage in that business in an intensive manner[Pg 5]
for the purpose of putting on the market spring or
green ducklings. Where these are in demand they
bring a good price and since the output per farm is
large they pay a good return even with a small margin
of profit per pound.

The second greatest opportunity undoubtedly
consists of duck raising as a by-product of the general
farm. Where conditions are suitable, that is to
say, where there is a considerable amount of pasture
land easily accessible, and particularly where there
is a stream or pond to which the ducks can have access,
a small flock of ducks, say 10 or 12 females,
can be kept to excellent advantage on the farm. The
cost of maintaining them will not be great and they
will not only provide a most acceptable variety in
the form of duck meat and duck eggs for the farmers'
table but they will also produce a surplus which
can be sold at a profit. It must be remembered,
however, that where only a small flock is kept it is
generally impracticable for the farmer to give his
ducks the attention necessary to cater to the market
for green ducklings. As a result he usually keeps
them until fall and sells them on the market at a
considerably lower price than is obtained by the
commercial duck grower.

There also exists an opportunity which has not
been developed to any great extent to keep some one
of the egg producing breeds of ducks such as the Indian
Runner for the primary purpose of egg production.
A few ventures of this sort seem to have been[Pg 6]
successful but it must be remembered that the market
for duck eggs is not nearly so broad as that for hens'
eggs and that in some quarters there exists considerable
prejudice against duck eggs for table consumption.
Before engaging in duck raising primarily
for the production of market eggs it would therefore
be necessary to investigate and consider carefully
the market conditions in the neighborhood so as to
know whether the eggs could be marketed to advantage.
While the Runner ducks are prolific layers
there is no advantage in keeping them in preference
to fowls as egg producers. The eggs are larger
in size but it takes more feed to produce them, while
they cannot as a rule be disposed of at much if any
higher price than can be secured for hens' eggs.
For baking purposes duck eggs can be readily sold
on account of their larger size.

There is always an opportunity to produce fine
stock of any kind, whether it be ducks, chickens,
turkeys or geese. Ducks are not exhibited to the
same extent as are chickens and the competition in
the shows is not as a rule so keen. Nevertheless
many persons are interested in producing and exhibiting
good stock and there exists a very definite
market for birds of quality.

There is also a probability that a good business
could be worked up by one who would pay special
attention to producing a strain of ducks of early
maturity, large size and good vigor in order to supply
breeding drakes to many of the commercial[Pg 7]
duck farms. These farms usually secure drakes for
breeding from sources outside their own flocks each
year but the usual practice is to exchange drakes
with some other commercial grower. While very
good birds are to be found on these duck farms
there is no greater opportunity to engage in any systematic
breeding, the selection of the breeding stock
being of rather a hurried nature during certain seasons
of the year when the ducks are being marketed.
Moreover, the long continued custom of exchanging
drakes with the neighboring farmers has in most
cases led to the blood being so largely confined within
one circle that no great percentage of new blood
is obtained by these exchanges. Of course, the opportunity
along breeding lines for this purpose is
limited to the Pekin duck as this is the breed which
is kept upon all the large commercial duck farms
in the United States.

Prices for Breeding Stock. Duck breeders who
make a specialty of selling breeding stock or eggs
for hatching find a steady and quite a wide demand
for their stock. The eggs are usually sold in sittings
of 11 and bring a price of from $3 to $5 per sitting
depending on the quality of the stock. The prices
received for the birds themselves depend of course
upon their quality and may run anywhere from
about $5 to $25 per bird.

Ducks for Ornamental Purposes. On estates or in
parks where natural or artificial ponds are included
in the grounds, waterfowl are often kept for orna[Pg 8]mental
purposes. Any breeds may be used, and
often the gay colored Wood Duck and Mandarin, or
some one of the small breeds such as the Calls,
Black East Indian or the Mallards are kept for this
purpose. It is said that these small ducks will absolutely
destroy the mosquito larvae in any such ponds
or lakes.

[Pg 9]

CHAPTER II


Breeds and Varieties—How to Mate to Produce Exhibition
Specimens—Preparing Ducks for the
Show—Catching and Handling

Breeds of Ducks. There are 11 standard breeds
of ducks. All of these breeds with the exception of
the Call, Muscovy and Runner consist of a single
variety. The Call is divided into two varieties, the
Gray and the White; the Muscovy consists of two
varieties, the Colored and the White; and the Runner
consists of three varieties, the Fawn and White,
the White and the Penciled.

Duck breeders, of course, whether raising the
birds for fancy or for profit, keep one of the standard
breads or varieties. Frequently, also, the farm
flocks consist of standardbred ducks but on many
farms, probably a great majority, the flock consists
of the common or so-called "puddle" duck. In certain
parts of the South there is a duck known as the
"mule duck" which is a cross between the Muscovy
and the common duck. This is a duck of good market
quality but will not breed from which characteristic
it gets its name. Most of the common or
"puddle" ducks which are found on farms are of
rather small size, are indifferent as layers, and do[Pg 10]
not make a desirable type of market duck. They
have arisen simply from the crossing of standard
breeds with resultant carelessness and indifference
in breeding. Because of the care with which they
have been selected and bred for definite purposes,
the standard breeds are decidedly superior to the
common "puddle" ducks and should by all means
be kept in preference since they will yield better
results and greater profits.

In addition to the standard breeds and varieties
flocks of Mallards are also kept to a limited extent.
The Mallard is a common small wild duck which
has lent itself readily to domestication and which
thrives with proper care under confined conditions.
In weight, the drakes will run from 2½ pounds to 3
pounds or even a little larger. The ducks average
about 2¼ pounds with a variation of from 1 pound
12 ounces to 2 pounds 8 ounces. By selecting the
large eggs for hatching and by liberal feeding, it is
easy to increase the size of Mallards to such an extent
that they resemble small Rouens rather than
wild Mallards. The plumage of the Mallard is very
similar to that of the Rouen but of a lighter shade.
Another small wild duck known as the Wood or
Carolina duck, which is a native of North America,
has been domesticated and on account of the great
beauty of its plumage is usually to be found wherever
ornamental waterfowl are kept. The Mandarin
duck is a small duck of about the same size as
the Wood duck, is of beautiful plumage and like the[Pg 11]
Wood duck is generally kept for ornamental purposes.
This duck is said to be a native of China.

Fig. 1. Upper—Pair of Mule Ducks. Lower—Pair of Blue
Swedish Ducks. (Photographs from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S.
Department of Agriculture.)

Fig. 2. Upper—Mallard Duck. Lower—Mallard Drake. The
Mallard is a wild duck which is quite easily domesticated and which has
a plumage color very similar to the Rouen. It is small in size.
(Photographs from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of
Agriculture.)

Classification of Breeds

So far as the standard breeds and varieties are
concerned they may be divided into three classes
according to the purpose for which they are kept
and for which they are best suited. First is the meat
class which consists of the Pekin, Aylesbury, Muscovy,
Rouen, Buff, Cayuga and Blue Swedish. These
breeds could well be termed general purpose ducks
for they are quite good layers in addition to producing
excellent table carcasses and are therefore well
suited for general farm use. They are, however,
kept more particularly for meat production.

The second class is known as the egg class and
consists of the three varieties of the Runner Duck,
formerly known as the Indian Runner. The Runner
Duck is much smaller in size than the birds of the
meat class, is longer in leg and more active, and is
not so well suited for the production of table ducks
but is a very prolific layer. With proper feeding
and management the Runner ducks will compare
favorably with hens as egg producers.

The third class is known as the ornamental class
and is composed of the ducks which are kept and
bred principally for ornamental purposes. This
class consists of the Call duck with its two varieties,[Pg 12]
the Black East India duck and the Crested White
duck. Both the Call and East India ducks are small
in size being really the bantams of the duck family.
While they make good table birds, their small size
handicaps them as commercial meat fowl. The
Crested White duck is of larger size, possesses a
crest and is bred mainly as an ornamental fowl.

Marking the Ducks. The duck raiser who is
breeding his ducks for exhibition quality has need
for knowledge of the breeding of the birds he may
contemplate using in his matings. In order that this
information may be available, the young ducks as
they are hatched can be marked by toe punching
them on the webs of their feet in the same manner
that baby chicks are toe punched. A different set
or combination of marks is used for each mating so
that the breeding of the different ducks can be distinguished.
Mature ducks can, if desired, be leg
banded in order to furnish a distinguishing mark.

Nomenclature

Before taking up a description of the matings of
the different standard breeds and varieties it is well
to indicate the common nomenclature which is used
in connection with these fowls and which differs
from that used for chickens. The male duck is
called drake, the female duck is termed duck, and
the young duck of either sex is termed duckling. In
giving the standard weights for the different breeds[Pg 13]
of ducks, weights are given for adult ducks and
adult drakes, and for young ducks and young
drakes. By adult duck or drake is meant a bird
which is over one year old. By young duck or drake
is meant a bird which is less than one year old. The
horny mouth parts of the duck instead of being
termed beak as in chickens are called bill, and the
separate division of the upper bill at its extremity
is termed the bean. Ducks do not show any comb
or wattles as in chickens. In England use is made of
the terms ducklet and drakerel. Ducklet is used to
signify a female during her first laying season just
as the word pullet is used in contrast to hen. Drakerel
is used to signify a young drake as contrasted
with an older drake just as the word cockerel is used
in comparison to cock in chickens.

Distinguishing the Sex. The sex of mature ducks
can be readily told by their voices and also by a difference
in the feathering. The duck gives voice to a
coarse, harsh sound which is the characteristic
"quack" usually thought of in connection with this
class of fowl. The drake on the other hand utters
a cry which is not nearly so loud or harsh but which
is more of a hissing sound. Distinction of sex by this
means can be made after the ducklings are from 4
to 6 weeks old. Before this age, both sexes make
the same peeping noise.

Mature drakes are also distinguished from the
ducks by the presence of two sex feathers at the
base of the tail. These are short feathers which[Pg 14]
curl or curve upward and forward toward the body
of the bird. In ducks these feathers are absent.

Size

An idea of the size of the different standard
breeds can best be obtained by giving the standard
weights. They are as follows:—

There are no standard weights for the Call duck
and for the Black East India duck but these are all
small in size, being really bantam ducks. The drakes
will weigh from 2½ to 3 pounds and the ducks from
2 to 2½ pounds.

Popularity of Breeds

In the meat class by far the most popular duck in
this country is the Pekin. It is the breed which is[Pg 15]
used exclusively on the large commercial duck
farms. Next to the Pekin in this class probably
comes the Muscovy which is quite commonly kept in
some sections of the country, particularly in the
South. The Aylesbury duck has never proved to be
very popular in the United States perhaps due to its
white bill and skin, although it is the popular market
duck of England. The other breeds included in
the meat class are kept more or less commonly but
do not approach in popularity either the Pekin or
the Muscovy. Any of the breeds in this class will
prove to be satisfactory for a farm flock, although
the Colored breeds and varieties are at a disadvantage
when dressed due to their dark pin feathers.

In the egg class there is included only the Indian
Runner and this of course is the breed which is kept
wherever the production of duck eggs is the primary
object. The Fawn and White is the most popular
variety of this breed.

In the ornamental class there is no particular outstanding
breed, since the ducks belonging in this
class are kept very largely to satisfy the pleasure of
the owner and the selection of a breed is entirely a
matter of personal preference.

Egg Production

While the conditions under which ducks are kept
and the care they are given will affect their egg pro[Pg 16]duction
greatly, there are certain rather definite
comparisons that can be made between the different
breeds. The Pekin is a good layer and will produce
from 80 to 120 eggs. The Aylesbury and the Rouen
are about alike in laying ability, neither being quite
as good as the Pekin. The Cayuga is a good layer
ranking with the Aylesbury and Rouen or between
these and the Pekin. The Muscovy is an excellent
layer being fully as prolific as the Pekin, especially
if broken up when broody and not allowed to sit. The
Blue Swedish is about equal to the Cayuga in laying
ability. The Buff duck is an excellent layer comparing
favorably with the Pekin or even with the
Runner. The Runner ducks are the best layers of
the duck family and if given proper care and good
feed will compare favorably with hens in egg producing
ability. The Crested White duck is not a particularly
good layer. The Calls and the Black East India
ducks will lay from 20 to 60 eggs per year, approaching
the latter number if the eggs are collected
as laid and the ducks are not allowed to sit which
will induce some of them to continue to lay for quite
a portion of the year. Extremely large ducks of any
breed do not lay as well as the more medium sized
birds.

Size of Duck Eggs. The eggs of the different
meat breeds will run about the same in size with
the exception of the Muscovy whose eggs run a little
larger. Actual weights of eggs from representative
flocks show Pekin, Rouen, Aylesbury and Cayuga[Pg 17]
eggs to average about 2½ pounds per dozen although
there is a tendency for the Rouen eggs to run somewhat
larger and for Cayugas to run a little smaller.
Muscovy eggs weigh about 3 pounds per dozen with
selected large eggs weighing as high as 3¼ pounds.
Eggs of the Runner duck are smaller but are considerably
larger than average hens' eggs or about the
size of large Minorca eggs. They weigh about 2
pounds per dozen. Eggs of the bantam breeds of
ducks, the Calls and the Black East India, together
with those of the Mandarin and Wood ducks will
weigh from one pound to 1½ pounds per dozen depending
upon the size of the ducks themselves. Eggs
of the Mallard duck will run from 26 to 32 ounces
to the dozen. The size of eggs laid by ducks, especially
the bantam breeds and the Mallard can be
increased somewhat by liberal feeding. Average
hens' eggs should weigh about 1½ pounds per dozen.

Fig. 3. Upper—Comparison of size of goose egg on the left a black egg of a Cayuga duck in the center
and a hen egg on the right. Lower—Duck eggs—At the left is a Pekin duck egg, next a black egg laid by a
Cayuga duck, third a Muscovy egg, fourth a duck egg of green color and on the extreme right the egg of
a Runner duck. (Photographs from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.)

Color of Eggs. The color of duck eggs ranges
from white to a polished black. Pekin eggs run
mostly white although some show a decided blue
or green tint. Aylesbury eggs run quite uniformly
white. The color of Rouen eggs varies from white
to a dark green. The Cayuga produces very few
white eggs, most of them being green or black, some
being as black as though polished. Muscovy eggs
run from a white to a greenish cream in color. The
eggs of the Blue Swedish and the Buff ducks usually
run white. The Runner duck lays white eggs as a
rule while the Crested White duck lays eggs which[Pg 18]
range in color from white to green. The eggs of the
Call ducks run from white to green while the eggs
of the Black East India, like the Cayuga, for the
most part run from green to black.

A peculiarity in regard to the egg color is that the
same female may lay eggs which are widely different
in color. It is likewise true that the color of the
shell is influenced to some extent by the feed. Ducks
on range will lay darker colored eggs than those
which are yarded. There is also a tendency for the
eggs to run darker in color when laying first begins
and for the eggs to lighten as laying proceeds. A
peculiarity in regard to duck eggs with a dark
colored shell is that a thorough washing will lighten
up the shell color decidedly.

Broodiness. The Muscovy, the Call and the Black
East India ducks are broody breeds. The ducks of
these breeds will make their nests, hatch their eggs
and are good mothers. All the other breeds are
classed as non-broody breeds. Of course, a certain
percentage of them will go broody and show a desire
to sit but they do not make reliable sitters and
mothers and are not as a rule used for this purpose.

Considerations in Making the Mating[1]

Since ducks are kept for different purposes there[Pg 19]
will of course be certain fundamental differences in
the different classes in the selection of the individuals
to make up the mating. Whatever the purpose,
however, the first consideration in selecting the
breeders must be to secure those which possess excellent
vigor and general health and which meet
insofar as possible the standard requirements for
size. Where the Call duck and the Black East India
are concerned the selection for size must be for
smallness since that is a characteristic greatly desired.
In the other breeds the selection for size must
be to see that they come up to the standard weights
for the particular breed in question. As in other
classes of fowls the condition and cleanliness of the
plumage and the general appearance and actions of
the birds are good indications of their health and
thriftiness. A bright eye is likewise a valuable indication
of good health while a watery eye is usually a
sign of weakness. It is necessary to guard against
birds which show any tendency toward crooked or
roach back, hump back, crooked tails, or twisted
wings. Since all breeds of ducks should have clean or
unfeathered legs it is likewise necessary to guard
against any breeders which show down on the
shanks or between the toes as this sometimes occurs.

In selecting the mating for any one of the meat
breeds use birds which have good length, width and
depth of body so that they will have plenty of meat[Pg 20]
carrying capacity. For breeders of market ducks,
birds which are active, well matured and which are
not extreme in size for the breed are preferable as
the fertility is likely to run better than with the extremely
large birds. Where birds are bred for exhibition
purposes, it frequently happens that it is
desirable to use large breeders and to hold them for
breeding purposes as long as they are in good breeding
condition. Where this is the case it becomes
necessary to mate a smaller number of females to
a drake than would be the case with smaller and
younger breeders. Where old birds are used as
breeders better results will be secured by mating old
ducks to a young drake or vice versa than by mating
together old birds of both sexes. While ducks of any
of the meat breeds are kept primarily for meat production,
it is essential that the egg production be good
throughout the breeding season in order to raise as
many ducklings and secure as great a profit as possible.
Selection of the females as breeders should be
made therefore on the basis of good egg production
as well as good meat type if the conditions under
which the ducks are kept are such as to make it
possible to check this in any manner.

In selecting the mating in the Runner breed it is
necessary to keep in mind that the general type of
body is quite different from that of the meat breeds,
being much slimmer and much more upright in body
carriage. For this mating select thrifty, healthy
birds and those which are active. Some breeders[Pg 21]
trapnest their Runner ducks or have some other
means of checking up the better layers. As in
chickens, it is of course desirable to use these better
layers as breeders since the purpose in keeping this
kind of duck is primarily egg production.

In selecting the mating in the Call and East India
breeds it is necessary to use the smaller ducks since
the object here is to keep the size small. In addition,
with these breeds or with any other breeds kept
and bred primarily for fancy or exhibition purposes,
it is necessary to conform just as closely as possible
to the standard requirements[2] both insofar as size
and type are concerned, and also with respect to
color.

Breeds of Ducks

The Pekin. While this variety wants to be of
good size and to have length, breadth and depth of
body it is somewhat more upstanding than some of
the other meat breeds, showing a definite slope of
body downward from shoulders to tail. The back
line of the Pekin should show a slight concavity
from the shoulders to the tail and the upper line of
the bill is likewise slightly concave between the
point where it joins the head and its extremity. The
[Pg 22]shoulders should be broad and any tendency toward
narrowness at this point must be avoided. While a
good depth of keel is desired, the standard does not
call for so deep a keel as in the Aylesbury. As a
matter of fact, however, the winning specimens as
seen in the shows are not as a rule as erect in carriage
as called for by the standard illustration,
there being a tendency to get them almost if not
quite as deep in keel as the Aylesbury. In fact,
some breeders seem to strive for a low down keel
approaching a condition where they are nearly as
low in front as behind but this is not desirable Pekin
type.

Sometimes a drake will show a rough neck, that
is, the feathers on the back of the neck will be
crossed or folded over showing a tendency to curl.
These birds should be avoided as breeders since
there is a tendency for them to produce ducks having
a crest. Sometimes a green or a greenish spotted
bill will be encountered. Since the bill should be a
clear yellow, breeders showing this defect should be
avoided particularly as they are likely to produce
birds having greenish or olive colored legs. The
shanks and toes should be a clear deep orange.
Black sometimes occurs in the bean. This may occur
in birds of either sex but is more common in the
ducks than in the drakes. In the drake black in the
bean disqualifies but while it is undesirable and a
serious defect in the duck it does not disqualify. The
color of the plumage is white or creamy white[Pg 23]
throughout. Creaminess in this variety is not a
serious defect as it is in white chickens. The use,
however, of yellow corn and of foods very rich in
oil tends to increase the creaminess of the plumage
and should not be used to excess for birds which are
to be exhibited.

Fig. 4. Upper—Young Pekins which on account of their size,
thriftiness and rapid growth were selected out of a lot about to be
killed for market and saved for breeders. Lower—Aylesbury
Drake—Notice the depth and development of the breast. (Photographs
from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of
Agriculture.)

The Aylesbury. This breed is particularly noted
for its deep keel. It differs from the Pekin in type
in that it is more nearly level in body. There is a
decided tendency for the Aylesbury to run too short
in body which has probably come about by extreme
selection for deep keel. It is well, therefore, in making
the mating to select breeders with good length
of body. Since the deep full breast and keel is characteristic
of this breed it is necessary to avoid breeders
which show any tendency toward a flat breast.
As in the case of the Pekins avoid any birds which
have green or olive colored bills. The back line of
the Aylesbury should be straight, showing no tendency
toward a slight concavity as in the Pekin.
Birds showing this shape back should be avoided.
As in the Pekin black on the bill or bean of the
drake will disqualify and in the duck is a serious defect.
The color of plumage should be white throughout
and should show no tendency toward creaminess.
The bill in this breed is flesh colored instead
of yellow as in the Pekin. The Aylesbury is not
quite as nervous a breed as the Pekin.

The Rouen. The Rouen duck is a parti-colored
breed and is therefore much more difficult to secure[Pg 24]
in perfection of color and marking than is the case
with the white breeds. Moreover, the dark pin
feathers make the ducks more difficult to dress
than in white breeds. In type these birds are very
level in body and are massive, carrying a great deal
of meat. Avoid birds showing a lack of length of
body or depth of keel or which are too flat in breast.
The back of the Rouen should have a slightly convex
or arched shape from neck to tail and it is necessary
to guard against birds which have a flat or a concave
back. The body of the Rouen should be carried
practically horizontal. The upper line of the bill
should be slightly dished or concave. The white
ring about the neck of the drake is an important
part of the marking. This should not be too wide
but should run about a quarter of an inch in width.
It should be as distinct and clean cut as possible but
should not quite come together in the rear. Any approach
to a ring in the female is a disqualification.
White in the primary or secondary wing feathers is
a serious defect since it constitutes a disqualification.
It must therefore be carefully avoided.
White feathers in the fluff of the drake is another
color defect which must be guarded against.

Fig. 5. Upper—Rouen Drake. Notice the low set, nearly horizontal
body, the massive appearance and the arched back. Lower—Pair
of Black East India Ducks. (Photographs from the Bureau
of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.)

Breast of Drake. The farther the claret color on
the breast of the drake extends down the better will
be the females secured from the mating. Drakes
which are deficient in the amount of claret on the
breast should therefore be thrown out as breeders. A
purple rump in drakes must be avoided as must black[Pg 25]
feathers over the rump as they tend to keep up too
dark a body color in the female. On the other hand
too bright or light a color in the male or exhibition
female will produce females which are too light in
color. Drakes with light olive colored bills must be
avoided as these will have a tendency to produce
offspring which show too much yellow in the females'
bills, and clear yellow bills constitute a disqualification.
In the females solid yellow bills, fawn
colored breasts and absence of penciling must be
avoided. Females which are dark or nearly black
over the rump are good breeders as they tend to
keep up the ground color of the body and tail.

The Rouen shows some tendency to fade in color.
This is evidenced first on the tips of the wings. The
fading will also show in the fluff of drakes. The
drakes of this breed and likewise of the Gray Call
and the Mallard show a peculiar behavior with respect
to the color of their plumage. About June 1
the drakes moult, losing their characteristic male
adult plumage and the new plumage is practically
that of the female. This female plumage is retained
until about October when they gradually regain their
normal winter male plumage. Young Rouens of both
sexes have female plumage until the last moult which
occurs at about four or five months of age, when the
drakes assume the adult male plumage. The sex
of the young Rouens can, however, be told by the
difference in the color of the bills.

Fig. 6. Upper—Rouen Drake showing summer plumage. At
this season the Rouen drake assumes a plumage resembling quite
closely that of the female. In the fall the drake again assumes the
normal male plumage. Lower—Rouen Duck. (Photographs from
the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.)

The Cayuga. The Cayuga is much like the other[Pg 26]
breeds of the meat class in general type or shape of
body showing good length, breadth and depth. It
is a very solid duck and weighs heavier than it looks.
The body carriage is slightly more upright than the
Rouen but not so much so as the Pekin. The back
line should be straight and any tendency toward an
arched back must be avoided. It is slightly smaller
than the Pekin, Aylesbury and Rouen, averaging
about a pound less.

In making the mating, size is important and
breeders should be selected which are up to standard
weights if possible. While this breed is not
kept very widely at the present time, nevertheless
it is an excellent market duck, dressing out into a
very plump yellow carcass in spite of its black plumage
which is a disadvantage in dressing. The
color should be a lustrous greenish black throughout,
being somewhat brighter in the drake than in
the duck. The duck is more likely to show a brownish
cast of plumage, particularly as she grows older.
It is hard to hold good black color with age. Moreover,
white or gray is apt to occur in the breast of females.
With age also a little white sometimes develops
on the back of the neck, around the eyes and
underneath the neck at the base of the bill. The
white which occurs in breast is more likely to come
in ducks and is not commonly found in the drakes.
In the drakes on the other hand, there is a tendency
for the white to come on the throat under the bill.

Drakes as a rule run truer in color and hold their[Pg 27]
color better than do the ducks. Where the white
mottling occurs in plumage with age one need not
hesitate to breed from these birds if they were of
good black color as young birds. The drakes of the
best color do not as a rule fade or become mottled to
any great extent with age. It is necessary to guard
against birds as breeders which have a rusty brown
lacing on the breast and under the wings, also those
which have a wing-bow laced with brown. There
is a tendency for the bill of drakes, which should
be black, to be too light or olive in color and this
tendency increases with age. Drakes with bills of
this color should be avoided as breeders. When
Cayugas are first hatched the baby ducks all show
a white breast.

Fig. 7. Upper—Cayuga Duck. Lower—Cayuga Drake. (Photographs
from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of
Agriculture.)

The Call. The Call ducks are the bantams of the
duck race. There is always a tendency for them to
grow too large and this is especially true when they
have an opportunity to eat all they want as for example
when they are fed with the larger ducks.
They should not be fed too liberally and should be
given wheat or some other solid grain rather than
any mash. If there is a good pond of water to which
the Call ducks can have access they do not need to
be fed much of anything.

In breeding, the smallest individuals which are
suitable in other respects for breeders, should be
selected in order to keep down the size and offset
the tendency to breed larger in successive generations.
In type the Calls are practically miniature[Pg 28]
Pekins except that they should have a very short,
rather broad head and bill. The broad flat and
short bill and the round short head give the head an
appearance which is often described by the term
"button headed". In this breed avoid birds which
show arched backs. The body should have what is
known as a flatiron shape, that is, should be broad
at the shoulders and taper toward the tail. Too
deep keels and narrow shoulders should be avoided
as should also too long bills. Call ducks, together
with East Indias and Mallards should have their
wings clipped or be pinioned, that is, have the first
joint of one wing cut off, to prevent them from flying
away.

The Gray Call. The plumage of the Gray Call is
practically that of the Rouen although they are not
quite as good in color as a breed. There is more of
a tendency for some of the birds to run to dark and
others, especially the males, to run too light in color.
While they are likely to be well penciled the shade
of color is apt to be wrong. White in the flights and
under the wings must be guarded against as must
also absence of ribbon or wing bar in females. The
color of the plumage is likely to fade with age but
after the birds moult and secure their new plumage,
the color is usually higher again. In general the same
color characteristics hold true as with the Rouen
and the same defects must be guarded against.

Fig. 8. Upper—Gray Call Drake. Lower—Gray Call Duck.
(Photographs from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department
of Agriculture.)

The White Call. This variety is, both in type
and color, practically a miniature Pekin except for[Pg 29]
the short, rather broad head and bill. They breed
very true in color and should be free from creaminess.
The same general defects must be watched
for and avoided as in the Pekin.

Fig. 9. Upper—White Call Duck. Lower—White Call Drake.
(Photographs from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department
of Agriculture.)

The Black East India. This is a black breed
which is small in size being a bantam duck like the
Call. As a matter of fact it is a miniature Cayuga.
The color should be black throughout and the same
color characteristics hold true as in the case of the
Cayuga. The same color defects must therefore be
guarded against, the worst one being white in the
breast of females especially. Avoid breeding from
a drake with a black bill as in this respect the breed
differs from the Cayuga since the bill of the duck
should be black but that of the drake should be very
dark green. Purple barring must be carefully selected
against.

The Muscovy. This breed differs in certain respects
very markedly from the other standard
breeds of ducks. They are long and broad in body
which is carried in a horizontal position but are not
so deep in keel as the Pekin, Aylesbury or Rouen.
The longest bodied young ducks will make the largest
individuals. The head should have feathers on
the top which can be elevated at will to form a
crest. Guard against breeders having smooth
heads, or in other words, lacking a crest.
The face is covered with corrugations or caruncles
and should be red in color. At the base of the upper
bill there is a sort of knob-like formation in the[Pg 30]
drake which serves as one of the distinguishing
characteristics between the duck and drake of this
breed. The more prominent the knob and the more
wrinkled or corrugated the face the better is the
specimen in this respect. The wings are long and
strong and these birds fly very well. They will
also climb fences. The drakes are quite pugnacious
and fight one another badly at times. They are especially
pugnacious when they have young.

This breed of ducks will often roost on roosts like
chickens or in the trees or on the barn. They do not
quack like other ducks and unlike other domesticated
breeds which moult two or three times a year, they
moult only once, taking longer to do so, usually
about 90 days, although the female may complete
her moult a little sooner. The period of incubation
for Muscovy eggs is longer, being from 33 to
35 days as compared to 28 days for other
breeds. In size the male and female differ
considerably as will be seen from the standard
weights given (See Page 14), the male being considerably
larger. These ducks lay well, the fertility
runs good, the eggs hatch well, and the little ducks
are hardy and easily raised. They are a broody
breed. The ducks will make their nests and hatch
out their eggs if allowed to do so and are excellent
mothers. Sometimes they will fly up and make their
nests in a hollow tree. A Muscovy duck can cover
properly about 20 eggs. In spite of the fact that
they fly well they are easily domesticated. It takes[Pg 31]
about two years for the males of this breed to fully
mature although the ducks get their full size when
one year of age. The Muscovy is perhaps the best
general purpose breed for a farm flock.

The extent and intensity of the red of the face increases
up to maturity and the redder the face the
better. The plumage of the Muscovy is not as downy
or oily as other breeds, the feathers being harder.
For this reason the birds are more apt to become
water soaked and to drown as a result when they
have not been accustomed to water in which to
swim. This is especially true of the drakes on account
of their large size and long wing feathers.
Muscovy ducks dress well, having a rich yellow skin,
and therefore make a good market duck, although
the difference in size of the duck and drake and the
dark pin feathers of the Colored variety are disadvantages
from a market standpoint. Select against
breeders which run small in size as there is more or
less of a tendency for this breed to decrease in size.
The Muscovy is long lived, specimens having been
known to breed until they were eight or ten years
of age.

The Colored Muscovy. Although the standard
calls for more or less white in different sections of
this variety, as a matter of fact breeders desire to
get the birds as dark as possible except for a very
small patch of white on the breast and a small patch
of white on the center of the wing. Indeed, birds
without the white on the breast and with very little on[Pg 32]
the wing are valuable breeders since there is a tendency
for too much white to occur in the plumage.
Occasionally all black birds occur and these can be
used to advantage in breeding when there is a tendency
toward too much white in plumage. Plumage
more than half white is a disqualification. The dark
plumage birds such as are wanted are very likely to
show considerable black or gypsy color in the face
which should be a good red. This must be selected
against insofar as possible. The nearly black or the
darkest birds are quite likely to show some white or
grizzling on the head. Grizzled or brownish penciled
feathers sometimes occur in various parts of
the plumage and must of course be guarded against
as the markings should be distinctly black and
white. The baby ducks of this variety are quite apt
to show considerable white although the best of
them come yellowish black. This variety tends to
run a little larger in size than the white variety
although the standard weights are the same for
both. Dun or chocolate colored ducks sometimes
come from Colored Muscovies while Blue Muscovies
can be produced by crossing the Colored and the
white varieties.

Fig. 10. Upper—Colored Muscovy Drake. Notice the partly
erect crest feather on top of the head. Lower—White Muscovy
Drake. Notice the long, horizontal body and the rough or carunculated
face. (Photographs from the Bureau of Animal Industry,
U. S. Department of Agriculture.)

The White Muscovy. This variety should have
pure white plumage throughout. Young Muscovies
of both sexes often have a patch of black on top of
the head up to the time they moult at maturity.
Since black disqualifies it is impossible to show
young ducks in this condition but these black feath[Pg 33]ers
usually come in white after the moult and such
birds need not therefore be discarded as breeders.
When it is desired to show young White Muscovies
which have black on the head it is customary to
pluck these black feathers a sufficient time before
the show so that the white feathers which come in
their place will have time to grow out. There is
little or no trouble with black or gypsy face in this
variety.

Fig. 11. Upper—Crested White Drake. Lower—Young White
Muscovy duck showing black on top of the head. This is not an
unusual occurrence and the black is lost when the bird gets its
mature plumage in the fall. (Photographs from the Bureau of
Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.)

The Blue Swedish. In type and size this breed is
about the same as the Cayuga although perhaps
slightly more upstanding. In selecting the mating
it is important to use birds which are close to standard
weight as there is somewhat of a tendency for
the size to be too small. As its name indicates the
color is largely blue except for a white heart-shaped
patch or bib which should be present on the breast.
Sometimes this white extends along the underside
of the body from the under-bill almost to the vent.
Such birds are undesirable as breeders since they
show too much white. On the other hand birds lacking
a prominent white bib must also be avoided. Two
of the flight feathers should be white and birds
lacking these must be avoided. Guard against any
red, gray or black in any part of the plumage. Sometimes,
however, birds having more or less black
throughout the plumage are used as breeders for the
purpose of strengthening the blue color. Avoid any
tendency toward a ribbon on the wing-bow and also
birds that are too light, ashy or washed out in the
blue color.[Pg 34]

Sometimes birds show lines of white feathers
around the eyes and over the head and these should
be selected against as breeders as they are likely to
cause white splashing in the plumage. Yellow or
greenish bills must likewise be avoided since the first
of these is a disqualification. In general this variety
in breeding behaves insofar as color is concerned,
very much like the Blue Andalusian chicken.[3] The
young ducks when hatched are yellow or creamy
blue and from blue matings there are also produced
black and white ducklings. As in other colored
breeds and varieties, the dark pin feathers are somewhat
of a disadvantage from a market standpoint.

Fig. 12. Blue Swedish duck showing white flight feathers. The Standard calls for only two white
flights, but there is a decided tendency as shown here for more flights to be white. (Photograph from the
Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.)

The Crested White. Although not so large, this
breed is much like the Pekin but with body carried
more nearly horizontal and with a crest on the head.
The type varies considerably however, the principal
selection practiced having been for crest. The plumage
is white in color throughout. What is desired
in the crest is to have as large a one as possible,
round and perfect in form, and set squarely on the
head. Not infrequently crooked crests occur and
also double or split crests, that is to say, where the
crest is parted or divided. In some cases the crests
may even come treble, that is, split into three parts.
Entire absence of crest is by no means uncommon.[Pg 35]
In fact, it is considered a pretty good proportion if
one half of the ducks hatched have crests although
the matings vary considerably in this, occasionally
one producing practically 100% of the offspring
with crests. Avoid as breeders birds with small
crests, lopped crests, split crests or showing an absence
of crest. Avoid also breeders showing mottled
or green bills in females and black bean in the
bill of drakes.

The Buff. In type this breed is similar to the
Swedish. As will be seen from the standard weights
it is one of the medium sized breeds and makes a
very nice market bird as it dresses out into a nice
round fat carcass and is a good layer. In color the
birds of both sexes should be as uniform a buff as
possible except that the head and upper part of the
neck in the drake should be seal brown when in full
plumage. Color defects which are likely to be encountered
and which should be avoided are the
tendency for the head of the drake to run to a chestnut
color and for his neck to be too light or faded
out in color. Sometimes the head of the drake runs
too dark in color approaching a greenish black like
the head of the Rouen. This is of course undesirable.
The wings of both sexes are apt to run to light
or even in some cases, pure white flights. Blue wing
bars are sometimes shown and these must be carefully
avoided. Penciling such as is found in the
Fawn and White Runner sometimes occurs and since
it is a serious defect must be rigidly guarded against.[Pg 36]
Any tendency toward a white bib or a white ring
around the neck of both sexes must likewise be
avoided. Greenish or mottled bills must be avoided
in ducks which are to be used as breeders. Not much
trouble is experienced in the bill of drakes which as
a rule comes good. Any blue cast in the feathers on
the rump and back of both sexes must be selected
against. As a rule the females of this breed tend to
be better colored than the males. At certain periods
of the moult the head coloring of the drakes becomes
a good buff color and later when the moult is
complete, it changes to a copper color. When
hatched the ducklings are a creamy yellow.

Fig. 13. Pair of Buff Ducks—Drake on the right (Photographs from the Bureau of Animal Industry,
U. S. Department of Agriculture.)

The Runner. The type of this breed is quite different
from that of the other breed of ducks and
type is very important. The Runner wants to be decidedly
upstanding and to be very reachy. It should
have very slim slender lines. The neck should be
straight and the head should be carried at right
angles to the neck. The bill should be perfectly
straight on top and on a line with the skull showing
absolutely no tendency to be dished. The legs of
this breed are longer than those of other ducks and
this accounts for the fact that they run rather than
waddle when they move about. It is from this fact
that they get their name. They are very active and
are troublesome about crawling through fences.
They are good layers and non-sitters and they have
often been called the Leghorns of the duck family.
It must be remembered, however, that while they[Pg 37]
have the inherent ability to lay as well as hens they
will do this only when they receive proper feed and
care. It is quite useless to expect a high egg yield
from them when they are carelessly fed and improperly
housed and cared for. Avoid as breeders ducks
of both sexes that are too heavy behind, or in other
words, are too heavy-bottomed. Avoid birds which
are too short in legs. Avoid crooked or sharp backs.
Round heads must likewise be avoided.

The Fawn and White Runner. In this variety the
markings must be very distinct and definite. There
is a tendency which must be avoided for the head
to run to black instead of chestnut, especially in
males. It is likewise necessary to avoid females
which tend to show penciling on the sides of the
breast or on the wing-bows. These defects are apt
to be associated with colored flight feathers which
is also a defect to be avoided. Guard against too
much fawn extending up the neck from the body to
the head as the neck should be white in color. Too
dark tail coverts approaching a greenish black
sometimes occur and are undesirable. In type this
variety will not average quite as good as the White.

The White Runner. This variety is best in type
and it likewise runs good in color which should be
white throughout. Sometimes foreign color will be
shown in the back of females and this of course must
be avoided. Also avoid birds as breeders with green
or mottled bills.

Fig. 14. Penciled Runner Drake on left and White Runner Drake on right. (Photographs from the
Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.)

The Penciled Runner. In type this variety runs[Pg 38]
about the same as the Fawn and White. The color
combination is rather difficult to breed as it is hard
to get the good penciling desired in the female together
with the white markings. In general, in
breeding this variety there is a tendency to pay
more attention to type than to color. The penciling
is like that of the Rouen but lighter in color consisting
of a brown penciling on a fawn colored ground.
Avoid any grayish stippling on the breast of the
drake and also on the wing-bows. These defects
are likely to be associated with colored flights which
are undesirable. The colored portion of the head of
the drake is darker than that of the duck in this
variety. Avoid lack of white on the neck in both
sexes and avoid females which are lacking in penciling.

Preparing Ducks for the Show. Aside from selecting
the individuals which most nearly approach
the standard requirements there is very little which
can be done in the way of preparing the birds for
the show as these fowls are practically self-prepared.
For a period of at least a week or ten days
before they are shipped to the show those intended
for exhibition should be given access to a grass
range and also if possible to running water. The
grass range will keep them in good condition and
the running water will allow them to clean themselves.
Any broken feathers should be plucked at
least six weeks before the birds are to be shown in
order to allow the feathers time enough to grow out[Pg 39]
again. It must be remembered that most ducks
after getting in a good condition of flesh do not tend
to hold this for a very long period but soon grow
thinner again and will not take on fat the second
time for some little period.

Often there will be a difference in weight as high
as 3 pounds when a duck is in good condition and
after it has thinned. In order to have the ducks in
top form, therefore, it is necessary to bring them up
to flesh at the proper time. In order to bring ducks
which are to be exhibited up to standard weight,
they should be fed twice daily, for at least 10 days
before shipping, a grain mixture consisting of one
part corn and two parts oats. Give them all they
will eat of this mixture. With Runners and the small
breeds of ducks there is a danger of their putting on
too much weight if corn is used in the ration and it
is therefore best to give them oats alone. When
the birds are shipped to the show they are quite
likely to get their plumage soiled during the journey.
When this occurs fill a barrel about half full
of water. Then as the ducks are taken out of the
shipping coops take three of them at a time, put
them in the barrel and cover it over, leaving them
for a few minutes. When they are taken out they
will usually be clean.

Catching and Handling Ducks

Ducks should never be caught by the legs which
are short and weak and are very likely to be injured.[Pg 40]
For the same reason they should never be carried by
the legs. Ducks should be caught by the neck,
grasping them just below the head. They can be
carried short distances without injury in this way
but it is not advisable to carry fat ducks by the neck
for any considerable distance. The best way to handle
them is to catch them by the neck, then carry
them on the arm with the legs in the hand just as
one would carry a chicken. See Fig. 15. A scoop net
about 18 inches in diameter and with a six foot handle
can also be used to excellent advantage in catching
ducks.

Fig. 15. Two methods of carrying ducks. (Photographs from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S.
Department of Agriculture.)

Packing and Shipping Hatching Eggs

Eggs for hatching must be shipped when they are
fresh as duck eggs tend to deteriorate in quality
quite rapidly. They may be shipped fairly long distances.
Shipment may be made either by express or
by Parcel Post. In order to prevent breakage and
to lessen the effects of the jar to which the eggs are
subjected during shipment, they must be carefully
packed. One of the best methods is to use an ordinary
market basket. Line the basket well on the
bottom and sides with excelsior. Wrap each egg in
paper and then wrap in excelsior so that there will
be a good thick cushion of excelsior between the
eggs and they will not be allowed to come in contact
with one another. Pack the eggs in the basket securely
standing them on end so that they cannot[Pg 41]
move or shift around. Cover the top of the eggs
with a thick layer of excelsior using enough so that
it runs up well above the sides of the basket. Over
the top sew a piece of strong cotton cloth. Instead
of sewing the cloth it can be pushed up under the
outside rim of the basket with a case knife, this
being quicker and equally as effective as sewing.

[Pg 42]

CHAPTER III


Commercial Duck Farming—Location—Estimate of
Equipment and Capital Necessary in Starting
the Business

Distribution. Commercial Duck farming is confined
very largely to the sections within easy shipping
distance of the larger cities. A great majority
of these farms are located about New York
City, particularly on Long Island. Some duck farms
are located on the Pacific Coast and a few commercial
plants are scattered about here and there
throughout the country. The size of these farms
ranges all the way from plants with an output of
5,000 or 10,000 ducklings up to those with an output
around 100,000 yearly.

Stock Used. The stock used on the commercial
duck plants of the United States consists exclusively
of the Pekin. The reasons for the use of this particular
breed are the fact that it has white plumage
and therefore dresses out well, that it is of good
size, that its egg production is good, and that it
makes quick growth.

Location of Plant. On Long Island the commercial
duck plants are located along the streams, especially
those on the southern shore of the Island,[Pg 43]
which empty into the various bays. Locations along
these streams are not easy to secure at the present
time owing to the fact that duck farms are not allowed
in many sections where summer homes have
been built. A water site of this sort is very valuable,
although not absolutely essential, since it provides
water yards for the breeding ducks and for the fattening
ducklings if desired, and reduces the labor
and cost of equipment materially since the ducks
always have access to water and no additional provision
need be made to provide them with drinking
water. It also enables the ducks to keep their plumage
clean. Usually these locations are on fresh
water streams but some of them are further out toward
the bay where the water is salty or at least
brackish.

The mature ducks thrive well on the salt water
and do not have to be furnished with fresh drinking
water in addition. For the young ducks, however,
with a salt water location it is necessary to provide
fresh drinking water. A few farms in other sections
of the country are what are known as dry land
farms, that is to say, they are not situated on the
bank of a stream. In such locations running water
is carried through the yards so that the ducks have
an ample supply of drinking water and in some
cases artificial ponds are constructed to provide
water in which the breeding ducks can swim. Formerly
the idea was universally held that swimming
water was essential for the breeders in order to se[Pg 44]cure
good fertility, and many duck farmers still believe
that better results can be secured in this way.
On some of the dry land duck farms, however,
breeding ducks are successfully kept without such
swimming places. The young market ducklings do
not require water to swim in although some raisers
prefer to have it and it is commonly allowed where
readily available. On the dry land farms provision
is made simply for a continuous supply of fresh
drinking water for the fattening ducklings. Ducklings
kept out of the water, do not take as much exercise
and, in consequence, fatten a little more readily.

Making a Start in Duck Farming

Duck farms or plants are sometimes operated on
a considerable scale at the beginning, the plans
being carefully laid by some experienced duck man.
In these cases, operations at the start may be of
sufficient magnitude so that the output will amount
to 15,000 or 20,000 ducklings in a year. In most
cases, however, these places have been the result
of a more gradual growth from a small beginning,
a condition made necessary either by the inexperience
of the grower or by lack of capital. Not infrequently
men engaged in other forms of farming but
possessing a suitable location will keep 200 or 300
breeding ducks and from this gradually build up a
good sized duck plant.

Equipment, Capital, etc. Required. The estimates[Pg 45]
given as to the amount of equipment and capital required
are based on the assumption that a plant is
to be operated of sufficient size to have a yearly output
of about 30,000 ducklings. It must be understood
in this connection that location and various
other conditions or circumstances will influence the
cost of different items of equipment and for this reason
these estimates must not be considered as absolute
but should rather serve as a guide or basis on
which to figure. The figures here given contemplate
the building up of an establishment which is efficient
but which is in no particular elaborate, the buildings
and other equipment being as simple and inexpensive
as possible.

Lay-out or Arrangement of the Plant. The plant
must be carefully planned so as to make the best
possible use of the land and particularly of the
water frontage. It is particularly important to arrange
the buildings in such a manner as to cut down
labor as much as possible. If there is any expectation
of enlarging the capacity at some future time,
this must also be borne in mind in the arrangement
of the various buildings and yards. The incubator
cellar should be convenient to the No. 1 brooder
house and the various brooder houses to one another.
The brooder house must likewise be convenient
to the growing and fattening houses and yards
and these in turn to the killing house. The feed
room should be centrally located so as to save labor
as much as possible in feeding the ducks.[Pg 46]

Land Required. For a duck plant of the size indicated
10 acres of land should be ample. This,
however, means that no effort would be made to
grow any of the feed for the ducks or ducklings with
the exception of green feed. In some cases where
the lay of the land is unusually favorable so that the
plant can be laid out to the very best advantage, a
smaller amount of ground than this might be sufficient
but it is not well to figure on less than 10 acres.

Number of Breeders Required. With the usual
methods of management and with good success, one
may estimate that 40 young ducks can be marketed
each year from each breeding female. This is a good
average although in some good years duck raisers
will do a little better than this. On the other hand
in poor years they will not do so well. For a plant
having an output of 30,000 market ducks there
would therefore be needed in the neighborhood of
800 breeding ducks in addition to 100 drakes.

Housing Required for Breeders. In figuring on
the amount of housing required for this number of
breeding ducks, it is necessary to figure on 2½ to 3
square feet of floor space per bird, 3 square feet
being better than 2½. This would require a housing
space 20 feet deep by 120 feet long. However
ducks are not usually housed in one building of this
size, and in fact it is better not to do so since the
smaller the flock of breeders kept together the better
they will do. In no case should a duck raiser
run more than 400 ducks in a flock and it is very[Pg 47]
much better to run them in pens of 100 each. In
fact, some breeders do not place more than 25 to 50
breeding ducks in a pen.

Incubator Capacity. Incubators are used exclusively
for hatching the eggs. At the present time in
practically all cases some form of hot water mammoth
incubator is utilized for this purpose. An investment
is required both in incubators and in a
cellar in which to operate them. In figuring on the
incubator capacity necessary to take care of a proposition
of this size, it is necessary to base the estimate
on the number of eggs produced during the season
of flush production. The duck raiser figures on
incubating all eggs suitable for the purpose rather
than to sell any of them for other purposes as there
is a greater profit in rearing and marketing the
ducklings. For that reason he must have incubator
capacity enough to take care of all the eggs laid at
any time of the year. During the season of flush
production the yield will ordinarily run in the neighborhood
of 80%. The period of incubation is 28 days
but 2 days more should be added to this to allow for
cleaning out the machines, etc., before starting another
hatch. This means that there would be 30 days
between hatches. Figuring on 800 ducks with an 80%
production for 30 days an incubator capacity of
around 19,200 eggs would be required.

Brooder Capacity. A brooder house capacity,
where artificial heat can be supplied, sufficient to
take care of about half of the total output of the[Pg 48]
plant at one time is necessary. This means there
would have to be on this plant a heated brooder
house capacity for 15,000 ducklings. About half
of this number or 7500 would need accommodations
in the number 1 or warmest brooder house where
the heat can be kept up to 65 or 70 degrees in the
house itself, and warmer of course under the hover.
The other 7500 ducklings capacity would be in the
number 2 house, that is, a house where heat could
be supplied in the early spring and where the temperature
could be run up to 60 degrees. Hovers in
such a house are not really needed but it is common
to cover the hot waterpipes with a platform in order
to provide a runway on which one can run a wheel
barrow and thus simplify feeding. Ordinarily
after May 1 no heat is needed in the number 2
brooder house. The young ducks are usually 2 to 3
weeks old when they go into the number 2 house
and they stay there for about 2 weeks depending on
the weather. Heat for the brooder houses is supplied
by means of hot water pipes and a coal burning
stove such as are used in brooder houses for
chickens. A number 3 or cold brooder house is also
needed where ducklings can be housed and can be
driven in at night and in cold weather after they
have graduated from the number 2 house. From
the number 3 house a part of the ducklings are
taken directly to the yards where they are housed
in open front sheds.

Fattening Houses or Sheds. In addition to the[Pg 49]
brooder houses, there are required fattening houses
or sheds for the ducks when they are moved from
the No. 3 brooder house to the yards. Suitable
houses for this purpose are 16 feet deep by 24 feet
long. In front they are 5 feet high and in the rear
3½ feet. They are set on posts with a base board
around to make them tight. The fronts are entirely
open and provided with curtains which are used only
in the winter to keep out the snow. The ducklings
are shut in these houses when desired by means of
wire panels which close the lower part of the front.
Houses such as described are divided into two parts
and each side will accommodate 200 ducklings.

Feed Storage. Considerable feed storage room is
necessary as it is very desirable to be able to buy
feed in quantity and also to carry a considerable
stock on hand in order to offset the possibility of not
being able to secure feed at any time. There should
be storage capacity for 4 cars of 30 tons each, in
other words, for 120 tons of feed. Still greater capacity
than this is desirable. In connection with the
feed storage there should be a place where the feed
can be mixed and where feed can be cooked. Two
power operated feed mixers are required as one is
not sufficient during the busy season to allow the
mixing and feeding of the mash for both the breeders
and the young stock at the same time. A feed
cutter is necessary in preparing the green feed
which is mixed in the mash. The usual type of kettle
feed cooker is commonly used for boiling fish and[Pg 50]
preparing other cooked feeds but in its place a
small four-horse steam boiler can be utilized to good
advantage as this makes it possible to cook the feed
right in the mixer by using a steam hose.

Killing and Picking House. A killing and picking
house where the ducks can be prepared for market
is another necessary building but this need not be an
expensive building. It must be located with reference
to its convenience to the rest of the plant. It
is also desirable to locate it over a spring if one is
available for the spring water can be used to excellent
advantage in cooling the dressed ducklings.
When a spring is not available water must be piped
to this building. The killing house is usually built
with at least one side open or partly open. A place
is provided outside the picking room where the
ducks can be hung and bled. Inside room is required
for six or eight pickers. A kettle for heating water
to be used in scalding the ducks is necessary as are
also tanks in which to place the ducks after they
are picked. Additional room is needed where the
ducks can be weighed and packed ready for shipment.

Residence. In addition to the other buildings
enumerated, a residence would of course be necessary.
The size and elaborateness of this and consequently
its cost depends entirely upon the owner's
needs and wishes.

Horse Power. One horse and wagon for the purpose
of drawing the feed about the plant and for[Pg 51]
certain other necessary work would be required. If
the owner desires to do his own hauling of the feed
from the railroad and the other necessary trucking
he would, of course, have to keep more horses, a
team at least, or an automobile truck. Where only
one horse is kept, this trucking must be hired done.

Feeding Track. On many of the larger duck
farms, a feed track is employed in feeding the stock.
Such a track consists of a framework of sufficient
strength to support a car filled with mash which is
pushed along the track by hand. The track leads
from the feed mixer across the various yards where
the ducks to be fed are located, including both the
breeding ducks, yard ducks and brooder ducks in
yards. This involves a considerable amount of
trackage which must be fairly level and which runs
over the yard fences or along the ends of the yards
so that the feed can be shoveled directly from the
car into the feeding trays in the yards. The use of
a feed track simplifies the feeding considerably but
its construction is quite expensive. Where a track
is not used, the feed as mixed is dumped into a low
wagon which is driven along the yards, or through
them by removing movable panels in the fences and
the feed shoveled from the wagon to the feed trays.

Fig. 16. Power feed mixer. The feed is dumped into a low
wagon from which it is shoveled to the ducks. (Photograph from
the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.)

Electric Lights. Most duck farms at the present
time are located where electric lighting is available.
It is desirable and in fact almost necessary to have
the various houses wired so that lights can be turned
on when desired. In addition, lights are usually pro[Pg 52]vided
in the yards for fattening ducks and are used
at night and especially during storms to keep the
ducks from stampeding.

Water Supply. An adequate water supply is essential.
This will consist of a well or spring furnishing
an ample amount of water, a power pump and
a water supply tank. From the tank, the water must
be piped to the incubator cellar, the brooder houses,
the killing house, the feed house and to any of the
yards where the ducks do not have access to a natural
supply of good water. In addition, of course,
the water from the same tank is usually used to supply
the residence.

Fences. Not a great deal of investment is necessary
in fences since the yards are rather small and
the fences are low. Two-foot fences of two-inch
mesh wire are used for the yard ducks while for the
little ducks 18-inch wire of one-inch mesh is used.
The biggest items of expense connected with the
fences are the cost of the stakes or posts used in their
construction and the labor used in this work. The
portion of the yards extending into the water are the
most troublesome and most expensive to build. In
some cases, rather elaborate wooden picket fences
are used in the water yards. These are more permanent
but are more expensive to build.

Labor. For a plant of the size indicated there
would be required in addition to an active
working proprietor three other men. One man would
be needed to operate the incubators, one man would[Pg 53]
devote his time to the brooder houses, one man
would feed the yard ducks and the fattening pens,
and one man would do the killing and packing, take
care of the feathers, clean the yards, etc. Of course,
there would be periods when these men would not
have their entire time taken up with their particular
duties and this would permit them to turn in and
help with the miscellaneous work on the plant.

In addition to the regular men employed, additional
labor would be necessary to do the picking.
For this purpose pickers are usually brought in and
work by the piece. During the spring of 1920 these
pickers received six cents per duck and they will
average about 75 ducks a day, beginning work at 6
in the morning and finishing by noon or a little later.
Some pickers will average as high as 100 ducks a
day. In the busy season from 800 to 1200 ducks will
be marketed per week and the usual practice is to
kill and pick not over three days a week, usually
during the first part of the week.

Invested Capital. Investment in the business exclusive
of working capital, that is to say, the money
in the land and buildings and other equipment
would require under present conditions about $1,000
for each thousand ducks marketed. In other words,
in a plant of this size, close to $30,000 would be invested.
The amount of invested capital depends to
some extent upon location and upon the elaborateness
of the buildings and other equipment but with[Pg 54]
a well laid out economical plant an investment of the
size indicated should be sufficient.

Working Capital. In addition to the capital invested
in the plant there would be required a considerable
amount of working capital. From the
first of November to the beginning of the marketing
of the ducks there would be required from $6,000
to $8,000 with which to purchase feed, meet the pay
roll, and for other running expenses. Even after
the marketing begins there would be a period of
from a month to six weeks when the expenses will
continue to be greater than the receipts so that some
additional capital might be necessary. However,
returns would begin to come in which could be used
to take care of the more pressing current obligations
so that additional working capital which might be
needed over that indicated would not be large.

Profits. The profits in commercial duck raising
vary widely, as must be expected, depending upon
the management, upon the season and upon prices
received. After deducting all overhead charges and
interest on the investment, the net return per duck
should be at least 10 cents per duckling marketed.
In fact the return should be 15 cents to provide
much inducement to engage in the business. Some
seasons the returns will run greater than this but on
the other hand, there is always the chance of occasional
big losses.

[Pg 55]

CHAPTER IV


Commercial Duck Farming—Management of the
Breeding Stock

Age of Breeders. On most large commercial duck
plants the entire breeding stock is renewed each
year. In other words, the breeders are kept only
through their first laying season. This makes it
necessary to select from the young stock reared and
save for breeders as many head as it is desired to
carry for the coming year. This practice is used
for the reason that ducks lay best during their first
year. Therefore, since it is desired to keep up the
maximum egg production in order to raise as many
market ducks as possible, young breeders are considered
better. Some raisers, however, keep a part
of their breeding ducks for two years and occasionally
for 3 or even 4 years but this is not the usual
practice. Recent comparison made between young
and two year old ducks as breeders would seem to
indicate that ducklings hatched from the eggs of the
latter live a little better.

Distinguishing Young from Old Ducks. In this
connection it is of interest to know how young ducks
can be readily distinguished from the older birds.
The young ducks have bright yellow legs and bills[Pg 56]
while the old ducks after a period of laying, lose a
considerable amount of the yellow from these sections.
In addition, soon after the ducks begin to lay,
their bills as a rule will begin to be streaked with
black. Young ducks can also be told from the old
ducks by feeling of the end of the breast bone which
runs to a point at the abdomen. In the older ducks
this is hard while in the young ducks it is gristly and
bends easily. The windpipe of an old duck is hard
and rather difficult to compress or dent while in the
young duck it is softer and easily dented.

Selection of Breeding Ducks. The breeders are
usually selected from the ducklings which reach
market age from the last week in June through July.
As these lots become ready for market and are
driven into the pens to be slaughtered each duck is
handled and any especially good birds which the
proprietor thinks will make good breeders are
thrown out at this time.

In making selection of breeders those are chosen
which are healthy and thrifty and which have good
wide, long and deep bodies. Ducks with crooked
wings, crooked tails, hump backs or paddle legs are
rejected for this purpose. After the young ducks
for breeders are selected they are put in a yard or
fattening pen until the number which the owner expects
to keep is complete. These young breeders
generally begin to moult soon after they are selected
and from this time on they are fed whole corn and
plenty of green feed until it is time to begin feeding[Pg 57]
the laying ration. Some of the breeding ducks will
usually begin to lay about December 1 although
they will not lay heavily at that time. The laying
ration described later should be begun about that
time or a couple of weeks earlier.

Number of Females to a Drake. As a rule on commercial
duck farms the birds are mated in the proportion
of about one drake to seven ducks. This
proportion will vary to some extent under different
methods of management and weather conditions
and may run all the way from 1 to 5 to 1 to 8. The
smaller number of drakes should be used late in
the season while the larger number will give better
fertility early in the breeding season.

Since the drakes do not fight seriously, flock matings
can be made. Better results will be obtained
from smaller flocks than from large flocks and there
will also be less cracked eggs and less very dirty
eggs from the smaller flocks. Before the ducks are let
out in the morning there is a tendency for them to run
back and forth through the pens, and in this way
they tramp over many of the eggs which are laid anywhere
about the floor. The larger the flock the more
cracked and dirty eggs will result. While the drakes
do not fight each other they do at times injure and
kill the ducks to some extent when three or four
drakes may chase one duck. In this way they may
injure the ducks' backs and often pick their eyes and
necks. Whenever a duck is found which is injured
she should be removed from the flock. Difficulty of[Pg 58]
this sort is most prevalent about the 1st of March.
If the trouble gets very bad it can be stopped to
some extent by cutting back the upper bills of the
drakes about one-fourth of an inch with a tinsnip
or by reducing the proportion of drakes.

Securing Breeding Drakes. It is common practice
on duck plants to avoid inbreeding by securing
drakes from some other flock each year. This is
usually accomplished by buying the drakes outright
from some neighboring duck farmer. It may also
be accomplished by purchasing a few eggs for
hatching in order to secure new blood. In any particular
community there is a tendency for the duck
farmers to trade breeding drakes among themselves
for a period of years with the result that they all
have much the same blood and not a great deal of
benefit is obtained from securing the drakes from
some neighbor's flock. It is undoubtedly good practice
to go farther afield occasionally for a supply of
breeding drakes. In purchasing stock for new blood
be sure that it is as good as the home stock and better
if it can be found. It will do no good to purchase
and use inferior stock and may do much harm.

Houses and Yards for Breeders

The breeding flocks are usually confined to breeding
yards. The size of these yards depends upon the
size of the breeding flock but large yards are not required.
A yard for 200 breeders is not as a rule[Pg 59]
larger than 100 by 200 feet including the water part
of the yard. Houses and yards should be located
on sand if possible as this is easier to keep clean and
therefore keeps the birds in better condition. Occasional
flocks of breeding ducks are allowed their
liberty but this is not common practice nor is it good
practice unless the surroundings are clean and the
ducks do not have access to stagnant mud or refuse
in which they can work. If ducks work too much in
this kind of material they will eat more or less of it
which injures the eggs for hatching purposes.

Many different styles of houses are used for breeders,
some of which are decidedly more elaborate than
is necessary. A very satisfactory economical house
is one 20 feet deep, 7 feet high in front and 4 feet at
back, with a shed roof. This can be constructed
of tongue and groove material or may be made of
unmatched stuff and covered with paper. A house
of this proportion makes a good light house and it
can be carried in length according to the size of the
flock. For a breeding unit of 200 ducks, which is a
good unit to use, a house 20 feet deep and 30 to 40
feet long is suitable. No floor is used in the house
but it should be well filled up with dirt so that the
water will not come in.

One or more good sized openings are left in the
front of the breeding house for ventilation, or windows
may be placed in the front which can be used
for this purpose. Good ventilation is necessary.
Additional ventilation is secured from the doors. If[Pg 60]
the weather is mild the doors are left partly open,
if cold they are nearly closed, while when the
weather is hot they are left entirely open. A good
scheme is to use a sort of Dutch door so that the bottom
or top half can be opened independently. In
this way the top part of the doors can be left open
so as to let in the sunlight and still keep the ducks
in the house or the top may be left closed and the
bottom opened so as to allow the ducks to go in or
out and still cut down the amount of ventilation.
When the weather is warm the doors may be left
entirely open except for a board 18 inches to 2 feet
wide inserted in the bottom of the door when it is
desired to keep the ducks in.

Shade is essential for the breeders and if not provided
naturally by trees must be supplied by means
of artificial shelters.

Fig. 17. Upper—Rear and end view of house or shed used for
fattening ducks. Lower—General view on a duck plant, showing
open front fattening houses in the foreground and houses for
breeders in the background. (Photographs from the Bureau of
Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.)

Fig. 18. A good house for breeding ducks. It is 20 feet deep, 40 feet long, 7 feet high in front and 4
feet in the rear and will accommodate 200 breeders. (Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry,
U. S. Department of Agriculture.)

Bedding and Cleaning the Breeding Houses. Usually
straw, meadow hay, or swale hay is used for
bedding. Shavings make good material for this purpose
if they do not contain too much sawdust. The
principal objection to shavings is that it takes longer
to bed with them. Often a few joists are laid at the
back of the house on which to pile bales of straw or
other bedding so that it will be kept dry and will
serve as an emergency supply available for bedding
the house in stormy days. The houses should be
bedded fairly often in order to keep the floors clean
and dry and so as not to allow the ducks' feet to get
cold. The frequency with which bedding is neces[Pg 61]sary
will depend upon the weather. In winter it may
at times be necessary to bed every day. In May it
may be necessary only twice a week and still later in
the season only once a week. In wet weather the
ducks track in lots of mud and water and frequent
bedding helps to keep the eggs clean. The houses
are cleaned out only once a year and this is usually
done after the ducks have stopped laying. To clean
out the houses while the ducks are laying would
disturb them and tend to stop their egg production.

Cleaning the Breeding Yards. The yards should
be cleaned whenever they need it, that is, whenever
they begin to get sloppy or sticky. It is a matter of
judgment to decide when this is necessary. The
character of the soil influences this, as sandy yards
absorb the droppings better and do not need cleaning
as frequently as heavier soils. In the yards for
the breeding ducks, or the water yards, this will as
a rule not be over 2 or 3 times a season. In dry
weather cleaning is accomplished by sweeping the
yards with a broom. In wet weather the droppings
spread over the yard and are packed down by the
ducks' feet until they form a layer of putty-like material
which cannot be swept off but is scraped off
by means of a hoe.

Water Yards for Breeders. Formerly it was the
consensus of opinion that breeders needed water in
which they could swim in order to keep in good
breeding condition and to give the best results in
fertility of the eggs. At present it is not considered[Pg 62]
necessary to have sufficient water to permit swimming
although many breeders prefer to do this and
feel that they get better results from it. However,
breeding ducks have been and are being kept successfully
in dry yards where water is supplied to
them simply in an amount sufficient to allow them to
drink and to clean themselves. Where water yards
are provided this should not be on stagnant water
but there should be some circulation of the water
so as to keep it clean and fresh. Where the lay of
the land is such that it is not possible to run all the
yards down to a stream for this purpose it is sometimes
possible to dig a canal or ditch from the stream
to the yards so as to allow the ducks access to the
water. Where the yards can extend into the water
it saves a great deal of labor or considerable expense
in equipment as it is not then necessary to provide
the ducks with drinking water by means of
some artificial arrangement such as a concrete gutter
or ditch extending through the yards or by
means of artificial ponds.

If the water yards used freeze over in winter it is
necessary to cut holes in the ice so that the ducks
can get water for drinking purposes. Sometimes
the ducks will go into these water holes and after
getting their plumage wet will come out and sit
down in the yard and freeze fast to the ground. During
such weather conditions it is necessary to make
the rounds of the yards frequently and to loosen
any ducks that have frozen fast. If they are left in[Pg 63]
that condition they are apt to injure themselves in
trying to pull free and if left too long will die.

Fig. 19. Another successful type of house for breeding ducks. It is 20 ft. by 40 ft. and is divided into
two pens each of which will accommodate 100 breeders. (Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry,
U. S. Department of Agriculture.)

Fig. 20. Meal time for the breeders. (Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department
of Agriculture.)

Feeding the Breeders. Breeding ducks are fed
twice a day, in the morning and at night. It is usual
practice to feed the breeders last in the morning
and first at night. The reason for feeding them last
in the morning is that they are usually fed in the
yards rather than the house and they should be kept
in until they are through laying which will be after
daylight. A good breeding ration consists of the
following, the proportions being given by measure
in bushels.

• 1 bushel bran.


• 1 bushel low-grade flour.


• 1 bushel corn meal.


• 1 bushel green feed.


• ½ bushel either raw or cooked vegetables.


• 1 bushel in 10 of beef scrap.


• ½ bushel in 10 of cooked fish.

This ration will keep the breeding ducks in good
flesh but there will be no difficulty in their getting
too fat. It is also a good laying ration and will promote
good egg production. The vegetables used in
this ration usually consist of sugar beets, cow beets,
potatoes, etc. However, if potatoes are used the
amount of flour in the ration should be reduced a
little so as not to make the ration too heavy. Beets,
when used, are fed raw cut up and mixed in the
feed. Small potatoes, boiled and mixed in the feed
are more valuable as they have a greater food value
than beets. Some duck growers feed fish entirely,[Pg 64]
using no beef scrap. This is done where a plentiful
supply of fish can be secured by going out into the
bay after them. However, this is not very good
practice for a sufficient supply of fish may not
always be available and the ducks are so fond of
the fish that they will not eat well the beef scrap
used as a substitute for the fish, until they have become
used to it. Fish is prepared for feeding by
boiling it thoroughly in a feed cooker.

The available land on the plant is used to grow
a supply of green feed. Rye is used for this purpose
early in the spring as soon as it is high enough to
mow. It is mowed the first time when it is like a
lawn. At this stage it does not have to be cut up.
Oats are used in the same way. During the summer
fodder corn is used. This is the poorest crop for the
purpose but is as a rule the only one available at
that time. Rape is sowed in August and its use begun
about the time of the first frost and kept up
until the hard freezes come or until it is buried under
the snow. Creek grass which is secured from
the fresh water streams on Long Island by going
out in a flat bottom boat and raking it off the creek
bottom with a wooden rake, is very much relished
by the ducks and is used whenever it is available.
However, the supply of this material is not as plentiful
as it was formerly and it is rather hard to get.
When it is available it can be used either in winter
or summer.

Good field clover cut up and boiled with the pota[Pg 65]toes
or with the fish makes a good green feed. All
of these green materials for use in the ration, unless
they are already in short lengths, are cut up by
means of a power feed cutter before they are mixed
in the mash. When no other form of green feed is
available ground alfalfa is used but only half as
much of this material is mixed with the ration as
is used of any of the other kinds of green feed.
Wherever possible the various duck yards should be
used to grow a crop of green stuff such as oats or
rye as this not only helps out on the supply of green
feed but also helps to sweeten the soil. The growing
of a crop on the heavier types of soil used for ducks
is especially important as such soils are more likely
to become contaminated from the droppings.

The ration for the ducks is mixed up in a power
feed mixer which works much on the principle of a
power dough mixer. In fact, dough mixers are used
on some plants. In mixing the feed enough water
should be added to bring the material to a consistency
where it will hold together when squeezed in
the hand. In fact, the consistency should be between
crumbly and sticky, but should never be
sloppy. The feed is dumped from the mixer into a
low horse drawn wagon and driven around to the
various yards where it is shoveled off on to the feed
troughs or trays. On some large duck plants a
track is provided which runs over the yards and
over this a car loaded with feed is pushed and the
feed shoveled into the feed trays.[Pg 66]

The breeders should be fed in the same place. If
feeding is begun in the house this practice should
be continued. If feeding is begun in the yards it
should be continued there. To change disturbs the
ducks and interferes with their egg production.

Coarse ground oyster shell about as large as corn
should be kept before the breeders all the time in
boxes where they can help themselves. A flock of
700 or 800 breeders will eat upwards of 200 pounds
a week of this material. Unless sand is available in
the yards where they can get it, ducks should also
have access to a supply of good sharp creek sand
but when kept in sand yards no other form of grit
need be furnished.

The usual method of feeding is to utilize flat
troughs on which the feed is shoveled. Only as much
feed should be given at the regular feeding time as
the ducks will eat up clean. This makes it necessary
to watch the feeding carefully and to regulate
the amount accordingly. It is good practice to
gather up any feed that is left by the ducks so that
it will not lie there to sour and spoil as such feed
is bad for the birds.

Egg Production

The average egg production of Pekin ducks kept
under commercial farm conditions will run from
80 to 125 eggs per head for the season. This will vary
somewhat from year to year and also with the man[Pg 67]agement
and feed given the ducks. The laying begins
to a small extent about December 1 and gradually
increases until the ducks are laying freely in
February. As the hot weather of summer begins
to come on the laying drops off until about July
1 and after this not enough eggs are produced as a
rule to pay to hold the breeding ducks longer. Often
many ducks will stop laying considerably before
this, especially those which have started laying
early and it may not pay to keep such pens later
than May. Laying takes place early in the morning
and practically all the eggs are laid soon after daylight.
It is for this reason that the ducks are usually
shut up at night so that all the eggs laid will be secured
as some of them would otherwise be lost by
their being laid around in the yard or in the water.
In the spring the ducks can be let out about 6 a. m.,
as the laying will be pretty well over by that time,
but in winter they must be kept shut up later in order
to secure all the eggs. After the ducks start
laying in the spring they are very regular and continuous
layers and will miss fewer days than most
hens.

After the breeding ducks are first put in the
breeding pens and shut in the houses at night it is
common practice to use electric lights for the first
2 or 3 weeks in order to keep them from stampeding
as ducks in strange surroundings are quite nervous
and are quite likely to stampede and to run
over one another thus causing cripples. Electric[Pg 68]
lights have also been used to some extent during the
late fall and winter for the purpose of inducing egg
production earlier than the natural season. As a
rule the ducks can be started to laying about 4
weeks after turning on the lights but the average
production under this system is not likely to run
more than 60 eggs for the season as so handled they
moult quite early in the spring. A single 25 watt
light is sufficient for a house or pen 16 x 24 feet and
the lights are left turned on all night.

The object in feeding and caring for the breeding
ducks is to keep them from moulting and to keep
them laying as long as possible. It must be remembered
that any radical change in feed or manner
of feeding, shutting them up too closely, change of
temperature, or other disturbing conditions are
likely to cause moulting and to check egg production.
Any change in feed must be made carefully
and gradually, not suddenly. It must also be remembered
that ducks are excitable birds and must
be handled and driven carefully so as to disturb
them as little as possible.

Time of Marketing Breeders

The breeders should be turned off to market whenever
their egg production drops off so decidedly that
it no longer pays to hold them. In most cases this
will be about the 1st of July but it may range considerably
earlier than this, especially with pens of[Pg 69]
ducks that have started laying early. When the
ducks finish laying their eggs they begin to moult
and it is at this time that they should be marketed.
If marketing is delayed, the ducks will lose condition
as the moulting progresses and will therefore
be held at a loss.

Diseases and Pests

Disease. Old ducks, that is, mature ducks, are
practically free from disease. Of course, there will
be a certain amount of loss in the breeding stock
from various causes but this should not run for the
entire season more than 10% of the flock. Ducks
do not become egg bound, but sometimes, especially
during heavy laying, they become ruptured.

Insect Pests. Ducks are remarkably free from
lice and other insect pests and those which they do
have do not trouble them much. It is unnecessary
therefore to take any precautions in the way of
treating the ducks to keep them free of insects.

Dogs. Occasionally trouble may be experienced
from dogs. If these animals get into the yards with
the breeders or the fattening ducks, they may kill
a good many and in addition will seriously injure
the rest by chasing them and by the fright which
the ducks are given.

[Pg 70]

CHAPTER V


Commercial Duck Farming—Incubation

The Pekin duck is essentially a non-broody breed.
It, therefore, becomes necessary to resort to incubators
for the purpose of hatching the eggs. Occasional
ducks will sit if allowed to do so but it is not
the practice on commercial duck farms to allow them
to sit and hatch their young. No special means are
taken to break them of broodiness other than not to
allow them eggs to sit on.

Kinds of Incubators Used. Both the smaller kerosene
lamp heated incubators and the large or mammoth
hot water heated incubators are used for hatching
duck eggs. At the present time the mammoth hot
water machines are those which are in principal use
due largely to the lessened labor required to operate
them.

Incubator Cellar. It is necessary to provide some
room in which the incubators can be installed and
operated. This may take the form of a cellar, or the
incubators may be operated in rooms above the
ground. Many of the incubator cellars on duck
farms are only partially under ground and not a few
of them are built entirely out of ground. The particular
size and shape of the cellar or incubator[Pg 71]
room will, of course, depend upon the number of incubators
to be installed and upon their make and
shape. Usually these buildings are constructed
with rather thick walls so that the temperature of
the room will fluctuate less with changes in outside
temperature. Provision is also necessary by means
of windows or other ventilating devices to provide
for good ventilation in the room. The cellars are
usually constructed with cement floors as moisture
is used freely and wooden floors would rot out
quickly.

Incubator Capacity Required. The aim on commercial
duck farms is to hatch all of the eggs produced
which are suitable for the purpose. Practically
no eggs are sold except the cracked eggs or
those which would not give good results in the incubator
such as too large or too small eggs. Occasionally,
of course, there will be sales of duck eggs
in comparatively large lots for incubation purposes
where someone is starting a duck farm. Occasionally
also duck farmers buy from each other a few
eggs for incubation in order to secure new blood.
On the whole, however, practically all of the eggs
laid are incubated and it is necessary to have an incubator
capacity sufficient to take care of the eggs
as they are produced during the flush season.

Since the egg production at this time will run
around about 80% and since the period of incubation
is 28 days and a couple more days must be
allowed to take the ducklings out of the machines[Pg 72]
and to clean up the machines, it is necessary to figure
on 30 days between hatches. To take care of
the flush production at this time there would be required
an incubator capacity of from 20 to 25 eggs
per head of breeding ducks. The latter figure is a
safer estimate than the former. Of course, eggs
sufficient to fill the entire incubator capacity are not
put in the machines at any one time but different
lots are put in as soon as a sufficient number is obtained
to make it worth while. There will be, therefore,
eggs in various stages of incubation in different
sections of the machines at the same time. While
Pekin duck eggs will run about ½ heavier in weight
than hens' eggs they do not take up a proportionately
greater amount of space in the incubator. An
incubator tray will accommodate about 5/6 as many
Pekin duck eggs as it will hens' eggs.

Age of Hatching Eggs. Duck eggs should be set
as often as enough are secured to fill one or more
trays in the incubator or enough to produce a sufficient
number of ducklings to utilize brooding space
to advantage. Since duck eggs deteriorate more
rapidly than hens' eggs they cannot be kept so long
before they are set. It is best not to save them for
longer than one week. During the season of flush
production it is not, of course, necessary to save
them that long since enough eggs will be secured
to set each day if desired. The usual practice at
this time is to set twice a week. During the early
part of the season when the production of eggs is[Pg 73]
low and the temperature cool the eggs are often
saved for as long a period as two weeks without noticeably
bad results.

Care of Hatching Eggs. Eggs for hatching should
be kept in a cool place. Any place suitable for keeping
hens' eggs for hatching is a suitable place for
duck eggs. The temperature should be from 50°
to 70° Fahrenheit. Where the eggs are not kept
longer than one week, it is not necessary to turn
them, especially if they are kept on end. If kept
longer than this it is safer to turn them once a day
or once in two days, handling them carefully so as
not to crack any or to injure their hatching qualities.

Selecting the Eggs for Hatching. Medium sized
eggs are preferred for this purpose. Therefore, the
extremely large eggs and the very small ones are
thrown out. Rough shelled eggs or eggs with
crooked or deformed shells are likewise thrown out
since they are not likely to hatch well. Eggs that
are badly soiled so that they cannot be tested easily
are washed but the clean eggs are not. All the eggs
intended for incubation purposes are sounded by
striking them gently against one another in order to
detect and remove the cracked eggs. No selection
is made on the basis of color. The eggs may be
white, creamy white or a blue, or bluish green in
color. At the present time a considerably less proportion
of the eggs show a blue tint than formerly.[Pg 74]
As the egg laying season advances the eggs laid by
the ducks tend to get a little larger.

Temperature. Up to the time of testing, that is,
about the fifth day, the incubator is run at a temperature
of from 101 to 102 degrees. After the fifth
day the temperature is kept as near 103 as possible.
The most sensitive period for a duck egg is during
the first 3 or 4 days of incubation. If they are
allowed to get too warm during this time the germ
may be killed while if the temperature is too low,
development will be retarded.

Position of the Thermometer. In figuring on the
proper temperature at which to run the incubator,
the thermometer should be so placed that the bulb
is on a level with the top of the eggs, preferably
touching a fertile egg. If the thermometer bulb
rests on an infertile egg the temperature recorded
will be lower than the actual temperature of fertile
eggs in the later stages of incubation, due to the
animal heat of the developing embryos, with the
result that the machine would be operated at too
high a temperature.

Testing. It is common practice to make only one
complete test. This is done on the evening of the
fifth day. Testing may be done by means of an ordinary
candling device such as is used with hens'
eggs, each egg being examined separately. To save
time a piece of apparatus may be used which is simple
in construction and which simplifies the process
of candling considerably. This may be termed a[Pg 75]
testing table. It consists of a table the same
width as an incubator tray and longer than the tray.
In the table there is an opening the size of a row of
eggs and beneath this are placed several electric
light bulbs with reflectors back of them so as to
throw the light up through the eggs. By sliding the
tray along the table each row of eggs is brought over
the lights and their condition can be quickly noted.
At this test all the infertile eggs are taken out as
well as any eggs in which the germs have died.
The infertile eggs after a careful retest are then
packed in cases and sent to market where they are
usually sold to bakers as tested eggs. While no second
test is made of the eggs left in the machines the
experienced incubator operator is constantly on the
watch for and is constantly removing any eggs
which die at a later time. To the experienced eye
the color of the egg indicates that it has died as it
takes on a sort of pinkish or darkish tint. Duck
eggs after they die will spoil very quickly and must
be removed promptly as the odor which they throw
off is very strong and will prove harmful to the other
eggs. The inexperienced operator can readily locate
dead eggs by smelling over the tray.

Fig. 21. Interior of house for breeding ducks. Notice the heavy bedding and the feeding track. (Photograph
from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.)

Fig. 22. Incubator cellar on large duck plant. Trays of eggs set out to turn and cool. (Photograph
from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.)

Turning the Eggs. The eggs are neither turned,
cooled nor otherwise disturbed after they are put in
the incubator until after they are tested on the fifth
day. From this time on they are turned twice a day,
morning and night, until they begin to pip.

Cooling the Eggs. There is a considerable differ[Pg 76]ence
in the practice of incubator operators with regard
to cooling. No cooling should be done until
after the first test. After this some incubator men
cool the eggs by dropping the doors of the machine.
Others take the trays of eggs out and put them on
top of the machine. Cooling is usually done once a
day. The amount of cooling which the eggs require
seems to vary greatly and here again the judgment
of the operator comes into play. About the best general
rule which can be given is that the eggs should
be cooled until they do not feel warm to the face
but they should never be cooled to the extent that
they feel cold to the face or hands. The length
of time to bring this about varies with the age of the
eggs and the temperature of the room.

Moisture. A good deal of moisture is used in incubating
duck eggs. It is usual to begin to spray
the eggs with water the next day after testing.
However, this may vary anywhere from the sixth to
the tenth day. They are sprayed quite thoroughly,
some men using water enough so that it runs out of
the bottom of the machine. No particular care is
taken to see that the water used is warm. Ordinary
water just as it comes from the pipes is commonly
used and is applied by means of a spray nozzle attached
to a hose. However, extremely cold water
should not be used for this purpose. This spraying
is done once or twice a day as the operator may
think necessary until the eggs begin to hatch. In
many cases even then if the ducklings seem to be[Pg 77]
drying too fast after they come out of the shell, or
to be having difficulty to get out it is well to open
the machines and wet the eggs down thoroughly.

Fertility. The fertility varies with the season
that is, with the weather. At the beginning of the
laying season when the weather is cold the fertility
usually runs rather low. This is likewise true at
the end of the laying season when the heat of summer
sets in. During the interval between these two
times of low fertility there will usually be one or
more periods during which the fertility will go down
and then come back again. This seems to occur even
though the weather remains about the same and
though there is no change in the method of feeding.
Fertility may be considered to be good when it runs
about 85%. When the fertility is running poor the
hatching of the eggs left in the machines after testing
will usually be poor also.

Hatching. It takes longer as a rule from the time
that the ducklings pip the eggs until they hatch than
it does with chicks. To retain the moisture which is so
necessary during hatching, the machines are usually
shut tightly and are not opened until the hatching
is pretty well completed unless it becomes necessary
to add more moisture as indicated above. The little
ducklings should be left in the incubator until the
hatching is over and they are thoroughly dried off.
As soon as the hatching is completed, the ventilators
in the machines are opened to hasten the drying
process. If the ducklings open their bills and pant[Pg 78]
it is an indication that they are not getting enough
ventilation and this should be supplied by fastening
the machine door open a little way. If the ducks
are not ready to be taken out of the machines by
noon or soon after, it is best to leave them until the
next morning before removing them to the brooder
house. In the meantime, however, the old eggs and
shells and other refuse should be taken out. Usually
the hatch is completed in time so that the ducklings
can be removed to the brooder house on the afternoon
of the 28th day. As a rule the earlier the hatch
is completed the better are the ducklings.

Figures secured on results in hatching for the entire
season on Long Island duck farms indicate that
as a whole the duck raisers will not average much
over 40% hatch of all eggs set. Some hatches may
run as high as 60% or even more and in some seasons
the average percentage will run higher than
40. Some especially skilled operators may also secure
considerably better average results than this.
It is quite a common practice on the part of duck
farmers to pay their incubator man a bonus on all
ducklings over 40% hatched during the season. This
bonus may range anywhere from $1 to $5 per thousand
ducklings. Such an arrangement serves to give
the incubator man a greater incentive to give the
machines good attention and to secure just the best
results of which he is capable.

Selling Baby Ducks. Within the last two or three
years there has sprung into existence a small but in[Pg 79]creasing
trade in baby ducks. They are handled and
shipped about the same as baby chicks. Baby ducks
are ready for shipment as soon as they are thoroughly
dry, usually about 12 hours after the hatch
starts to come off. They are neither fed nor watered
before shipment and are packed in cardboard boxes
used in shipping baby chicks. As a rule the shipping
boxes will accommodate about half the number
of ducklings that they will chicks. Of course the
outside temperature very largely governs the matter
of the number to a compartment. In warm summer
weather, a two compartment box intended for
50 chicks will accommodate 26 ducklings if well
ventilated at the sides and top. They are shipped
by parcel post and can be sent anywhere within a
radius of one thousand miles if the trip does not require
more than 36 hours. For best results the ducklings
should not be allowed to go much beyond this
length of time before they are fed. On receipt they
should be placed immediately in a brooder already
prepared for them.

[Pg 80]

CHAPTER VI


Commercial Duck Farming—Brooding and
Rearing the Young Stock

Young ducks are easier to brood than chicks.
They seem to learn more quickly where the source
of heat is and they are less likely to cause trouble
from crowding. They are also less subject to disease.

Removing the Newly Hatched Ducklings to the
Brooder House. The ducklings should be left in the
incubator until they are thoroughly dried off. Usually
they will be dried so that they can be moved
on the afternoon of the 28th day of incubation. If,
however, they are not ready early in the afternoon
it is best to leave them in the machine until the next
morning. In moving the ducklings, place them in
boxes, baskets or other suitable carriers and cover
them with burlap or cloth to avoid any danger of the
ducklings becoming chilled.

Brooder Houses Repaired. There are many different
types and styles of brooder houses which are
used with success. For this reason only one type of
each class of brooder house needed is described in
detail. These particular houses have been in successful
use for a considerable period of time and
are given because they embody all the necessary re[Pg 81]quisites
for such houses and at the same time utilize
the space to good advantage and are economical in
construction.

In general there are required three different
brooder houses. The first of these requires sufficient
heating capacity so that the temperature of the
house itself can be maintained at 65 to 70 degrees
even in the cold weather of winter or early spring.
In addition, hovers are required in this house under
which a temperature can be maintained from 80 to
90 degrees. For convenience this house will be spoken
of as brooder house No. 1. A second brooder house
which can be called brooder house No. 2 will be required
which is equipped with heating apparatus so
that the temperature can be run up to 60 degrees
when required. The third brooder house known as
brooder house No. 3 is a cold brooder house or one
without artificial heat. It furnishes shelter for the
young ducks where they can be driven in at night
and during the day in cold weather. As the ducklings
pass out of the brooder house No. 3 they are
housed in sheds or shelters with yards which usually
extend into the water but which may not do so in all
cases.

Brooder House No. 1

The length of this house determines its capacity,
the required amount of which will depend upon the
output of any particular plant. There should be
brooder capacity in this house sufficient to care for[Pg 82]
approximately ¼ of the total output for the year at
one time.

Construction of House. A suitable house which
has been in practical use for some time consists of
one 20 feet wide and running east and west with
windows in the south or front side. If the location
were right such a house could be run north and
south to good advantage and should then have windows
on each side so as to let in the sunlight from
both directions. The front wall of this house is 7
feet high, the back wall 4 feet. The ridge of the
house is about 2 feet in front of the center, the front
slope of the roof having an eight inch pitch while
the back slope has a 6 inch pitch. The roof rafters
are 2 x 4's placed every two feet. The studs and
plates are likewise 2 x 4. The walls are made of
matched material. The roof is constructed of 1 x 2
inch strips placed every 4 inches and these covered
with shingles. Tie beams every 8 feet extend from
front to rear plates. This particular brooder house
is not ceiled but a good tight ceiling 8 feet above the
walk or runway would make it easier to keep the
house clean and would also render it somewhat easier
in cold weather to maintain the temperature desired.
The house is built on a concrete wall or foundation
and a dirt floor is used but the dirt must be
filled in well above the level of the ground outside so
that there is no danger of water coming into the house
or the floors becoming damp or sloppy. Windows
are placed in the front wall, one to each pen. In[Pg 83]
every other pen there is a small door in the back of
the house to facilitate cleaning out the pens. A
window can be substituted for this door to good advantage
as it makes the house lighter.

Fig. 23. Interior of No. 1 brooder house showing walk and hover combined in the middle of the house
and pens on each side. (Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.)

Heating Apparatus. Heat is furnished by means
of a coal burning stove which heats water and
causes it to circulate through pipes run the length
of the house. The heater must always be placed
in the windward end of the building as otherwise
it is hard to get the heat down to the other end as
the wind tends to drive it back. The hot water pipes
are carried down the center of the house and the
return pipes are located in the same place. A low
partition is run lengthwise of the house dividing the
pipes and thus forming double pens, half extending
from the center to the front and half from the center
to the rear of the house. The pipes and the partition
between them is covered over with boards making
a 4 foot walk or runway directly over the pipes,
which comes into most convenient use as a place to
convey, by means of a wheelbarrow, feed or other
material needed in the house, and as a convenient
place from which to care for the ducklings in the
pens on each side. This board covering over the
pipes also serves to hold the heat and thus forms
hovers.

It is advisable to partition off the first third of the
house, that is, the portion in which the heater is located,
with a solid partition. Then by having suitable
valves in the pipes, the heat can be cut off from[Pg 84]
the rest of the house and only the smaller partitioned
off end used as a separate and independent section
of the brooder. This is especially useful when only
a small number of ducklings are being hatched
early in the spring when the weather is cold and it
may be difficult to heat the whole building properly.
It is also economical in fuel under such conditions.

If, on the other hand, the number of ducklings
hatched during the cold weather is so large that all
or nearly all of the house capacity is needed to care
for them, it will usually pay to install an additional
heater, the pipes from which can be run along the
rear wall of the building, in order to keep up a
proper house temperature when the weather is
severe.

Pens. Having the hovers in the center of the
house, makes it possible to have double sets of pens,
one running from the center to the front wall and
the other from the center to the rear wall. The pens
are divided off by means of partitions made of one
foot boards. These are high enough to confine the
ducklings to their own pen and at the same time
are easy to step over. In a house of this width, 20
feet, with 4 feet in the center taken up by the double
hovers or walk, each pen is 8 feet long in the clear
or 10 feet to the partition under the hover. The pens
in the first third of the house are made 5 feet wide,
in the next third 6 feet and in the last third 7 feet
wide. When the ducklings are first brought from
the incubator cellar they are placed in the pens[Pg 85]
nearest the heater as the temperature will run somewhat
higher there than in the portions of the house
more remote from the heater. These 5 × 10 foot pens
will accommodate 125 baby ducklings although better
results will be obtained by placing only 100 in
a pen if sufficient room is available. Some duck
growers use boards which can be slipped into slots
made of cleats nailed to the pen partitions at different
distances from the hover and which serve to
confine the baby ducklings close to the hover for the
first few days or until they learn to go under the
hover to get warm.

As additional ducklings are hatched later and
brought to the brooder house, the ducklings already
there are moved along the necessary number of pens
in order to accommodate the new-comers in the pens
nearest the heater. For this purpose, a small door
is made in each partition next the outside wall of
the house through which the ducklings can be
driven. A broom is a handy implement to use in
driving the ducklings as they can be pushed along
in front of it. It is best to drive the ducklings
just after they have been fed as they are not so nervous
and afraid at that time.

The increased width of the pens in the second
and third portions of the house is for the purpose
of taking care of the growth of the ducklings as
they are moved along the house. Pens of the same
width as those in which they were started become
too crowded as the ducklings increase in size.[Pg 86]

Equipment of the Pen. The equipment of the
pens is quite simple. Water is piped through the
house along both walls so that it is available to each
pen. A spigot is provided in each pen and under
this is placed the drinking dish, which consists of a
round metal pan about a foot in diameter and 3 or
4 inches deep. A square pan should never be used
as the ducklings are apt to get their bills caught in
the corners. One quarter inch mesh wire netting is
bent in a circle and placed in the drinking dish as
a guard to keep the ducklings from getting into the
pan. This guard should be made of such size that
there is a space between the wire and the edge of the
dish of about 1½ inches all around. This guard
should be about 8 inches high. The water pan itself
is set upon a wire covered frame about 18 inches
square under which is dug a pit 4 or 5 inches deep
to drain away any water which the ducklings slop
out of the pan. Such an arrangement keeps the pens
from becoming sloppy and damp.

Each pen must also have a flat metal dish on
which to place the feed for the little ducks. Metal
pans are better than wooden feeding trays as they
are easier to keep clean.

In each pen is provided a small hopper filled with
fine sharp creek sand to which the ducklings have
access at all times. Some duck growers prefer to
mix the sand in the feed rather than to provide it in
hoppers. After the ducklings are allowed to run in
the yards, sand need not be furnished if the yards[Pg 87]
are sand as the ducklings will help themselves. If
the land in the yards is not sand, however, it is
necessary to continue to furnish this material.

Fig. 24. Watering arrangement in the brooder pens for young
ducklings. (Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U.
S. Department of Agriculture.)

Fig. 25. Another type of No. 1 brooder house. Here the hovers are along the back of the house and
the work is done from an alleyway along the front. The box with handles on top of the hover is used in
carrying the newly hatched ducklings from the incubator cellar to the brooder house. (Photograph from
the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.)

Grading and Sorting the Ducklings. As the
ducklings are moved from pen to pen through this
house as well as the other houses, they are constantly
graded for size and thriftiness, the smaller,
less thrifty individuals being left with younger lots.
Some ducklings do not grow as quickly as others,
and these if left with ducklings larger than themselves
will not get their share of the feed and will
not do as well. In this connection it should be noted
that when young ducks are not fairly clean it is a
good indication that they are not doing as well as
they should.

Cleaning and Bedding the Pens. Careful attention
must be given to keeping the pens and the ducklings
themselves clean if they are to do well. Therefore
the pens must be cleaned out as often as may be
necessary to accomplish this purpose. The judgment
of the brooder man must decide how often this
is necessary but it will be at least once a week. When
cleaning the pens the old bedding is thrown out
from the front pens through the windows and from
the back pens through the door provided in the rear
wall for this purpose. Bedding the pens must be
done more frequently, usually about every other
day. Fresh bedding will help to absorb the droppings
and will keep the pens from becoming sloppy
or sticky. For bedding, straw, meadow hay, swale[Pg 88]
hay or any other suitable material available should
be utilized.

Ventilation. Plenty of ventilation is required in
the brooder house in order to take out the ammonia
odor which arises from the droppings. Properly
managed, the doors and windows provide sufficient
means of ventilation but some duck growers prefer
to have roof ventilators in addition.

Other Types of Brooder Houses. Many other
types of brooder houses are used, some of them
being shed roof construction and many of them
being built narrower than this house, that is to say,
14, 16 or 18 feet wide with an alleyway along the
front or rear side of the house from which the work
is done. The hovers are placed at the back of the
pens when the alley-way is in the front, otherwise,
they are placed next to the alley-way. The disadvantages
of these houses are that only single pens
are provided and that valuable brooding space is
used up by the alley-way. The advantages of the
house described above lie in the fact that the hovers
are in the center of the house with the pens on each
side of this, thus doubling the capacity, and that by
making use of a walk over the hover pipe no room
is wasted in an alley-way. Having pens on each
side also lessens the labor of taking care of the
ducklings to some extent as the arrangement is more
compact.

Length of Time in Brooder

In House No. 1. As a rule the ducklings are kept[Pg 89]
in the No. 1 house until they are from 2 to 3 weeks
old, this of course depending somewhat upon the
time of year and the weather and also upon the
number of ducklings for which accommodations
must be provided at any particular time. As the
ducks are moved down through the house and
eventually reach the last pens they are taken from
this house and placed in brooder house No. 2.

Brooder House No. 2. This is a heated house like
brooder house No. 1 but in which it is not necessary
to maintain so high a temperature. Sufficient heating
apparatus should be installed to make it possible
to maintain the temperature at 60 degrees if
this becomes necessary in the early spring.

The particular brooder house described is 14 feet
wide and has a shed roof. It is provided with a
window in the front of each pen. No openings are
required along the back since this is not a double
pen house. The space in such a house could undoubtedly
be used to better advantage if it were
constructed as wide as the No. 1 house and the hot
water pipes and walk put through the middle of the
house so as to provide double pens. In this house
the hot water pipes are run along the rear of the
pens, and while hovers are not really necessary, a
walk is constructed over the pipes in order to save
space and provide a convenient place from which
to do the work, and this forms hovers.

Ordinarily after May 1 no heat is needed in the
No. 2 house. The pens in this house are 12 feet wide[Pg 90]
and they are equipped with feeding and watering
arrangements as in brooder house No. 1. As the
ducklings are moved to this house from the No. 1
house from 150 to 200 are placed in each pen. They
are moved through the house from pen to pen in the
same manner as in the No. 1 house to make way for
new arrivals. As a rule they stay in this house about
two weeks depending somewhat on the weather and
upon the number of ducklings being brooded. Yards
are used in connection with this house which are the
same width as the pens and 50 feet in length. As in
the No. 1 house the pens in this house should be
cleaned at least once a week and they should be
bedded with straw or other bedding material every
other day. As soon as the ducks have been moved
through this No. 2 house they are put in brooder
house No. 3.

Fig. 26. Brooder house No. 2 and yards. The trees furnish fine shade for the growing ducklings.
(Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.)

Brooder House No. 3

This is a shed roof house 16 feet wide equipped
with single pens. No heat is required in this house.
Yards of the same width as the pens and 50 feet
deep are used. Usually the ducks are fed outside
the house from a wagon driven along a roadway
just in front of the yards.

The pens are 16 feet wide and the same number
of ducks is used in them as in the No. 2 house. As
a rule the ducks stay in this house about 2 weeks
and are then moved to the duck pens or shelters[Pg 91]
with the larger yards which may or may not have
water. From this point on the ducks are termed
yard ducks.

In all three of the brooder houses the young ducks
are supplied with their drinking water from pipes
through the houses. They are not given access to
water until they are moved to the yards.

Fig. 27. Brooder house No. 3. At the time this picture was taken there were no ducklings in the house
and advantage was taken of this fact to give it a good cleaning by throwing out the bedding and droppings,
which will be hauled away and spread on cropped land. (Photograph from the Bureau of Animal
Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.)

Fig. 28. Long brooder house and yards with feeding track. (Photograph from the Bureau of Animal
Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.)

Fig. 29. Upper—Pekin ducklings 3 days old. Lower—Pekin
ducklings 2 weeks old. Duck egg used for size comparison. (Photographs
from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department
of Agriculture.)

Fig. 30. Upper—Pekin ducklings 3 weeks old. Lower—Pekin
ducklings 6 weeks old. (Photographs from the Bureau of Animal
Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.)

Fig. 31. Interior of a cold brooder house. The low partitions can easily be stepped over. (Photograph
from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.)

Yard Accommodations for Ducklings

As the ducklings get to be 8 weeks old they can
stand ordinary weather conditions and it is not absolutely
necessary to have houses for them. However,
it is common and good practice to provide
shelter where they can be housed at night and can
take refuge from storms. A suitable house for this
purpose consists of a building 16 x 24 feet divided
into two parts with 200 ducklings to a side. This
house is 5 feet high in front and 3½ feet in back. It
is set on posts with a baseboard around it to make
it tight. It can be constructed of matched stuff or unmatched
stuff covered with paper. The front is left
open but curtains are placed on the front which can
be used to close the openings so as to keep out the
snow. These are used only in the winter. When
the ducklings are first started in these sheds they
are shut in when desired by means of wire panels
fitted into the lower part of the open front. The
ducklings are left in these yards and fed there until
they are ready for market.[Pg 92]

Fig. 32. Eat, drink and grow fat for tomorrow they die. Fattening or yard ducks with fattening house
or shelter used. (Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.)

Shade. Shade is important for the ducklings as
soon as the sun gets hot. Exposure to the sun without
shade will cause quite a heavy loss in ducklings.
If natural shade is not furnished by trees, some artificial
means must be adopted to supply the shade.
This may take the form of shelters or low frames
covered with boards, brush or burlap.

Feeding. The first feed and water is given as soon
as the ducks are placed in the No. 1 brooder house
or when 24 to 36 hours old. They are fed 3 times a
day, in the morning about 6 a. m., at noon, and at
night about 4:30 or 5 o'clock. The time of feeding
should be regular, and fairly early in the morning
but not any earlier in the afternoon than one can
help so that the time between the evening and the
morning feed will not be too long. Some growers
prefer to feed 4 or 5 times daily for the first week or
two. The birds are fed as much as they will clean
up at each feeding and if any feed is left it should
be gathered up so that it will not sour and cause
digestive troubles.

The first feed consists of the following:—One
measure corn meal, one measure bran, one measure
ground crackers, stale bread or shredded wheat
waste, one measure in 10 of beef scrap or fish, one
measure in 6 of creek grass or other very fine green
stuff. Green rye or oats should never be used for
this purpose after it becomes jointed. If the feed
is mixed up with cold water about ½ measure of low-grade
wheat flour should be used to cause it to stick[Pg 93]
together. If hot water is used in the mixing this is
not needed.

Sand must be fed either by mixing it in to the extent
of about 3% of the ration or the sand can be fed
separately in hoppers as previously described. This
same mixture may be fed in the No. 1, No. 2, and
No. 3 brooder houses, or in other words, until ducklings
go to the yards, or ration No. 2 given below
may be substituted either at the start or after a week
or ten days. After the ducklings go to the yards the
following fattening ration is used: 200 pounds corn
meal, 100 pounds low-grade flour, 100 pounds bran,
1 part in 10 of beef scrap and 2 tubs or bushels of
green stuff. Some duck growers prefer to feed 300
pounds of corn meal instead of 200 pounds. This
ration like the other is fed 3 times a day. Of course,
there are many different rations in use with good results,
every grower having more or less personal
preferences in this matter. A proper proportion of
animal feed, consisting of beef scrap or fish is very
important as the ducklings will not grow and make
normal gains if this is omitted or reduced in amount.

Much has been written about the feeding of celery
seed to fattening ducklings for the purpose of improving
the flavor of the flesh and formerly ducklings
were advertised and sold as "celery-fed". As
a matter of fact, the amount of celery seed fed was
small and it is questionable how much influence it
had on the flavor of the birds. At the present time,[Pg 94]
celery seed is not used in fattening the ducklings on
most of the large duck farms of Long Island.

A comparison of gains made by ducklings on two
different rations is shown in the following table.
Ration No. 1 consists of the fattening ration given
above. Ration No. 2 consists of 100 pounds bran,
100 pounds corn meal, 50 pounds rolled oats, 50
pounds gluten feed, 10% beef scrap. The ducks
used were three days old at the first weighing and
there were 27 in each lot. After the second weighing
the number in each lot was reduced to 24 ducks.

Lights for Ducklings. Often when the ducks are
about one-third grown or about 4 weeks old they
will stampede at night at any unusual noise or any
other disturbance. In doing this, especially when
they are in fairly large lots, they surge back and
forth in the pens, running over one another with the
result that their backs are torn and scratched while
not infrequently more serious injuries result and[Pg 95]
may cause cripples. To keep them quiet it is common
to use lights at night. Formerly lanterns were
used but now on most duck plants electric lights are
available for this purpose. For a house 140 feet
long, six 15-watt lights scattered at equal intervals
will be sufficient, and these can be used in like proportion
for houses of other lengths. The lights are
left on all night. Even when the ducks are half
grown and may be out on the yards it is still necessary
to use lights on stormy nights so that they will
stay in and keep quiet and not get drowned in the
rain. With a 16 × 24 foot house such as described
previously, a single 25 watt light is sufficient. Ducklings
are especially likely to be stampeded during
thunderstorms and if a storm is coming up it is well
to turn on the lights and to shut the ducklings in
their shelters when they are first placed in the
yards. One should not carry a lantern when moving
among the ducklings at night as this will cause
moving shadows which are very likely to frighten
and stampede the birds.

Fig. 33. Another type of duck shed used on Long Island. (Photograph from the Bureau of Animal
Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.)

Fig. 34. Convenient feeding arrangements. At the right of the feeding track runs a water pipe with
spigots and pans at frequent intervals. At the left are the feeding trays. (Photograph from the Bureau
of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.)

Pounds of Feed to Produce a Pound of Market
Duck. It is stated by long established duck growers
that from 5 to 7 pounds of feed is required, this including
the feed given to the breeding ducks for the
season, to produce a pound of market duck.

Water for Young Ducks. Drinking water is provided
to the ducklings while in the brooder houses
by means of a piped supply. The drinking pans are
filled at each feeding time but at no other time.[Pg 96]
Water is not left before them continuously while
they are in the brooder houses as they would be
working in it all the time and this would keep them
dirty and make the house sloppy. After they are
put out on the yards they may or may not be provided
with water in which they can swim. Most
duck growers on Long Island allow them to have
access to water. While it is undoubtedly true that
swimming in the water induces them to take more
exercise and thus tends to reduce somewhat the
rapidity of fattening, at the same time it lessens the
labor very materially as they do not need to be provided
with a supply of drinking water other than
the water in which they swim. Ducklings can be
grown very successfully with only a limited amount
of water, that is, only enough to drink and in which
to wash themselves.

Age and Weight When Ready for Market. Ducklings
are usually marketed when they are 10 to 12
weeks old. A partial moult on the neck and breast
occurs about this time giving them a somewhat
rough look. This indicates that they are in proper
condition to kill. If killing is not done within a
week after this moult starts they will begin to lose
flesh and it will be some time before they will fatten
again. Ducks when ready to ship will average
from 5 to 6 pounds. A majority will weigh nearer
5 than 6 pounds. A pen of fattened ducks is driven
up to the killing house and into a pen where each
one is caught up and examined to see if it is in good[Pg 97]
condition. If the duck has a good smooth breast so
that the breastbone is not felt when handled and is
well fleshed on the back it is ready to kill. If it is
not in this condition it is thrown out and these thin
ducks are returned to the yards for further fattening
or are utilized for shipping alive. Thin ducks
are generally used for live shipments as they will
not shrink as much as well fattened ducks.

Fig. 35. An important part of rations for ducks. Green feed ready to be cut up into short lengths suitable
for mixing in the feed. (Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of
Agriculture.)

Fig. 36. Feeding fattening or yard ducks from the feeding track. (Photograph from the Bureau of
Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.)

Cripples. There will always be found in the
flocks more or less crippled ducks and those with
crooked backs, twisted wings, etc. As a rule ducks
with twisted wings fatten well and are in good condition
and can be killed about as soon as any of the
others. The crippled ducks are sorted out into a
lot by themselves where they are held until they can
be put into condition to market. It is doubtful
whether it pays the duck growers to bother with
these ducks since they are rather difficult to condition
and it would probably pay better to kill them.
However, it is quite common practice to carry them
until they can be marketed.

Cleaning the Yards. The yards must be cleaned
whenever they need it. It is a matter of judgment
to decide when this is necessary but they must be
cleaned whenever they get sticky or sloppy. The
weather will have a considerable influence upon the
frequency of cleaning which may be necessary once
in two weeks, or in the yards of brooder houses Nos.
2 and 3 may run as often as once a week. In dry
weather the yards are cleaned by sweeping up the[Pg 98]
droppings and carting them away. In wet weather
the ducks in running about over the yard pack down
the droppings until they form a sort of putty-like
layer which has to be scraped off with a hoe.

Critical Period with Young Ducks. The critical
period with young ducks is the first week of their
existence. With good management after they have
passed this point not many are lost. The loss in
young ducks from the time they are hatched until
they are ready for market will range all the way
from 5 to 30%. When the loss does not average
more than 10% for the season this is considered
good. Undoubtedly many duck raisers lose a greater
percent than 10.

Fig. 37. Yard ducks at rest. (Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry. U. S. Department of
Agriculture.)

Fig. 38. On this plant, the lay of the land was such that not all of the yards could be run down to the
stream. So a shallow canal was dug from the stream through the yards which were without natural
water frontage. (Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.)

Disease Prevention

Trouble from disease in young ducks is not severe
although there is a greater loss from this source
than in the case of mature ducks. The aim of the
grower should be to use such methods of management
and feeding as will keep the ducklings in good
health and reduce the losses to a minimum. To accomplish
this care must be taken to see that the
brooding temperatures are correct, that the feed
used contains what the ducklings need, that they
are not overfed and that the house and yards are
clean and dry and the feed and water dishes are
clean. Remember that green feed and animal feed
are essential ingredients in the ration.[Pg 99]

Gapes or Pneumonia. One of the principal
troubles is a disease which is called "pneumonia" by
some duck raisers and by others "gapes". It is not
the same disease which is called gapes in chickens.
In fact, it is a form of cold which approaches pneumonia.
The little ducks stretch their necks up and
breathe hard and usually die within a comparatively
short time. This disease may affect either the baby
ducks or ducks which are old enough to kill. All
that can be done is to make sure that the housing
and brooding conditions are such as to correct the
trouble which causes the colds.

Fits. In addition, the little ducks for the first 3 or
4 days may be more or less subject to a disease
which is called "fits" by some duck growers. With
this disease they simply keel over and soon die. It
is probably a digestive difficulty of some sort. The
feeding of plenty of green stuff or the turning of the
ducks out on grass will usually stop this trouble.

Diarrhoea. This is a fairly common trouble. It
may be due to improper feeding, or to too high or
low temperature in the brooder. The obvious treatment
is to remedy the cause or causes of the trouble.

Lameness. Not infrequently growers, particularly
beginners, experience difficulty from a fairly
large proportion of their ducklings becoming lame.
This may grow worse until a considerable number of
the birds will die. This trouble may be due to a
lack of animal matter and mineral matter in the
ration or may be due to digestive troubles caused by[Pg 100]
poor rations, by over feeding, by failing to gather
up feed not eaten by the ducklings and leaving it
to sour, or by lack of cleanliness of the feed and
water dishes. Where the pens are allowed to become
damp and sloppy this may also cause some
lameness.

Sore Eyes. Occasionally duck growers complain
that their ducklings suffer from sore eyes. This may
be due to a cold causing a discharge from the eyes
or may be due to the use of too sloppy feed which
adheres to the eyes and causes an irritation. Affected
birds should be placed in a separate pen from
the others and the eyes should be bathed with an
antiseptic solution.

Feather Eating or "Quilling". This is a bad habit
which is apt to cause more or less trouble when the
ducklings are about two-thirds grown. It is much
more likely to occur when the birds are kept in
cramped quarters. It is usually started by one or
a few individuals but when the feathers are injured
so that they begin to bleed, which they will very
quickly do, the vice will spread among the whole
flock and serious damage will occur. It is therefore
necessary to be on the lookout for this trouble, and
as soon as detected, the birds responsible should be
removed. If the culprits are placed with older
birds which are already feathered, they will not
trouble by trying to eat the feathers. It is the blood
in the growing feathers which attracts them. If the
habit has become general, it is more difficult to[Pg 101]
check. About the best thing that can be done, is to
turn them out in a roomy yard, one with a growing
green crop, if available, where they will be so busy
as to stop the feather eating of their own accord.

Rats.—Rats are very destructive if they get into
the brooder house. A single rat has been known to
kill and drag off as many as 200 ducklings in one
night. If a rat gets into the brooder house it is therefore
of the utmost importance that it be hunted
down and killed without delay. Otherwise serious
losses will result.

Cooperative Feed Association

A very large proportion of the feed used on a
duck plant is that which is fed to the market ducks.
By purchasing feed in considerable quantities the
duck grower is able to cut down the cost to some
extent. A number of the duck raisers on Long Island
have developed this idea further by forming a cooperative
feed organization. Stock in this concern
is held both by the duck growers and by outsiders
but is controlled by the duck growers. The feed association
maintains a feed warehouse, purchases
feeds in quantity and does business both with the
duck growers and with other persons in the market
for feed. The existence of a cooperative feed purchasing
association of this sort not only cuts down to
some extent the cost of feed but likewise makes it
possible for the duck growers to have greater assurance
of securing the supply which is so necessary to
them during the growing season.

[Pg 102]

CHAPTER VII


Commercial Duck Farming—Marketing

On commercial duck farms, the business consists
mainly of producing large quickly grown ducklings
which are marketed before they are mature. Because
of this immaturity, the ducks are quite commonly
termed green ducks. The business has also
become so highly specialized on Long Island and
this is such a center of the industry, that the birds
are commonly quoted on the New York market as
Long Island ducklings.

Proper Age to Market. It is important that the
ducklings be marketed as soon as they have reached
the proper age and stage of development. When
the ducklings are about 10 to 12 weeks old they begin
to shed their first growth of feathers. This is
apparent first on the neck and breast, giving them
somewhat of a rough appearance. The ducklings
must be marketed within one week after they begin
this moult. If they are allowed to go longer than
this they will begin to get thin and as it will take
them 6 weeks or more to grow a new crop of
feathers it will be a considerable period before they
get back in market condition again and any additional
weight which they may attain will not be sufficient
to pay for the feed eaten during this period.[Pg 103]

Weights at the Time of Marketing. Well grown
ducklings should average in weight from 5 to 6
pounds at 10 to 12 weeks of age when they are
ready to be marketed. A majority of the ducks will
weigh closer to 5 pounds than they will to 6. The
vast majority of ducklings are marketed at this age
as it does not pay to keep them past the time they
reach prime market condition. On commercial duck
farms practically the only ducks which are marketed
at an older age than this are the breeders
which are turned off at the end of the laying season
and the ducklings which by reason of their being
crippled or less thrifty are not in suitable market
condition at this time and are held longer until they
are in good condition. The ducklings are marketed
from early spring until late fall. The time at which
ducklings are first available for market in any quantity
depends upon the earliness with which the
breeders begin to lay and the end of the season depends
upon how late the breeders continue to lay at
a profitable rate.

The Last Feed for Market Ducks. It is important
in order to have the dressed ducklings appear to the
best advantage and also in order to insure their
keeping qualities as much as possible that they
should have no feed in their crops when they are
killed. This means that if they are to be killed in
the morning, which is the usual practice, they should
be fed for the last time the previous night. If, how[Pg 104]ever,
they are not to be killed until afternoon they
can be fed lightly in the morning.

Sorting Market Ducklings. When a pen of ducklings
which are being fattened are deemed ready to
be killed they are driven up to the killing house and
a few of them at a time driven into a small pen
where it is easy to catch and examine them. Each
duck as it is caught is examined to make sure that
it is in proper market condition. The examination
consists of feeling of the duck's body to see that it
has a good smooth breast so that the breast bone
cannot be readily felt. If it is in that condition it is
ready to kill. Ducks which do not show this condition
are thrown out and returned to the yards where
they are fed for a longer period unless it is desired
to ship them alive.

At the proper season of the year when breeders
for the next season are to be selected, suitable birds
for that purpose are picked out from the market lots
as they are examined. In any lot of ducks there will
be found some cripples. It is common practice to
sort these out and group them together in a pen by
themselves where they are held until they are in
suitable condition for marketing. It is doubtful
whether it pays to hold these cripples as they are
hard to get in good condition and in many cases are
probably kept and fed at a loss. Some ducklings
will show twisted wings but as a rule they are
thrifty and will fatten readily and be in good market
condition.

Fig. 39. Awaiting slaughter. The fattened ducklings are driven into these catching pens. (Photograph
from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.)

Fig. 40. Carrying the ducklings from the catching pen to the killing place. (Photograph from the
Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.)

[Pg 105]

Killing. As the ducklings suitable for killing are
selected, 10 or 12 of them, depending upon the capacity
of the killing room, are hung up by their feet,
the head being fastened down by means of a hook
or else weighted down by means of a blood can hung
from a hook inserted through the bill. By means of
a long, narrow bladed sharp knife the veins in the
throat just beyond the skull are severed so as to
cause free bleeding. The blood flows either into the
blood can or into a trough above which the birds are
hung. The birds are not stuck or brained unless it is
desired to dry pick them nor are they as a rule
stunned by hitting them on the head before bleeding.
In some states, however, the law requires that
all birds bled shall first be stunned in this manner.
The bleeding of the ducks causes their death and
they are allowed to hang until they are thoroughly
bled out. They are then taken down, the blood
washed off of their heads and placed on a table
or on the floor convenient to the pickers, other ducks
being hung in their places.

Fig. 41. The ducks are hung by the feet and the veins in the neck cut from inside the mouth to cause
free bleeding. (Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.)

Fig. 42. After the throat veins are cut, the ducks are allowed to hang until they are well bled out. The
blood is caught in the trough below. (Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department
of Agriculture.)

Fig. 43. Ducks which have been bled, ready to have the blood washed from their heads and mouths before
they are picked. (Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.)

Fig. 44. After they are bled and washed, the ducks are laid in the picking room ready for the pickers.
(Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.)

Scalding. The picker selects a duck from the
table where they are placed after being taken down
and carries it to a large kettle of water which is
maintained at a temperature just below boiling.
They are thoroughly soused in this water holding
them by the head and feet so as to allow the water
to penetrate into the feathers until they can be
readily plucked. The picker tests the readiness with
which the feathers come out by plucking a few from[Pg 106]
the breast or body and thus determines whether the
scalding is sufficient or whether more is required.
Care is taken not to dip the feet or head in the
water as this might discolor these parts. Practically
all market ducks from Long Island are scald picked
at the present time. Dry picking which is demanded
in some markets such as Boston makes a somewhat
better looking carcass and also increases the value
of the feathers, but is generally considered too slow
and too highly skilled a process for use on the average
duck farm.

Fig. 45. Holding the head in one hand and the feet in the other,
the picker dips the duck in water heated nearly to the boiling point
and souses well to work the water into the feathers until they pluck
easily. (Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S.
Department of Agriculture.)

Picking.. After scalding the picker starts removing
the feathers. In doing this the duck is held either
on the lap or on a board nailed to the side of the
feather box. The feathers on the breast are picked
first, then working down toward the tail, pulling the
feathers with the grain. The soft body feathers as
plucked are thrown into the feather box, the coarser
feathers being thrown on the floor. The main wing
and tail feathers are left on as are likewise some of
the feathers of the neck next the head.

The most troublesome part of picking ducks is removing
the down. This may be removed to some extent
by rubbing with the hand although care must
be taken not to bruise the skin severely. In some
cases the down is shaved off with a sharp knife. In
some of the commercial packing houses the duck's
body is sprinkled with powdered rosin and then
dipped into the hot water. This melts the rosin so
that the down and rosin can be rubbed off easily[Pg 107]
with the hand leaving the body clean. Pin feathers
are usually removed by grasping them between the
thumb and a dull knife.

In some packing houses, ducks are steamed before
picking. Where this is done they are picked clean
and the wing and tail feathers are pulled before
steaming takes place. Six or eight ducks which
have been bled are hung at the same time in the top
of a steam box or barrel which can be made air-tight
and the steam turned on until the soft feathers
of the breast come off easily. The length of time
to steam depends on the temperature of the steam
itself and varies from one-half to 2 minutes. In some
cases the ducks are hung in a steam box with the
heads outside so as to prevent the steam from
coming into contact with the heads, possibly discoloring
them.

On Long Island women are used very largely for
picking and they secure for this service 6 cents per
duck. A good picker should do 75 ducks or even
more a day. The value of the feathers will slightly
more than pay for the cost of picking.

Picking usually begins early in the morning about
6 o'clock and is generally finished by noon or soon
after. Most duck raisers figure on doing their killing
and picking during the first half of the week and
do not like to kill if they can help it during the latter
days of the week.

Fig. 46. Picking the ducks. (Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of
Agriculture.)

Dry Picking. Where the market requires it, the
ducks must be dry picked. In doing this the pro[Pg 108]cedure
is the same as in dry picking chickens. After
the cut is made to bleed the ducks, the point of the
knife is plunged through the roof of the mouth until
it reaches the brain when it is turned to cause a
paralysis of the muscles which enables the feathers
to be plucked more easily. The duck is then struck
on the back of the head with a club to stun it and
make it easier to handle when picking. The picker
seats himself by the feather box, with the duck on
his lap, holding the head pressed against the outside
of the box and held there by the picker's leg. He
then proceeds immediately and as quickly as possible
to pluck the feathers. It is necessary to accomplish
this without delay, for the feathers soon
set and are then much harder to pluck and are more
likely to result in tears in the skin. When removing
the down, the hand is moistened when much of the
down can be rubbed off. Pin feathers are removed
by grasping them between the thumb and the edge
of a dull knife and any which cannot be gotten in
this way are shaved off with a sharp knife. After
picking, the carcasses are cooled in cold water the
same as the scalded birds.

Cooling. After the birds are plucked they are
thrown into cold water and are left there for several
hours or until the body heat is entirely removed. It
is most important that this be thoroughly accomplished
for if any body heat is left in the carcasses
they are almost sure to become green-struck when
packed. The length of time that they must be left[Pg 109]
in the water depends upon the weather conditions.
If the weather is warm so that the water is not very
cool it is necessary to add ice in order to hasten the
cooling and to accomplish it thoroughly. Cooling
in water also serves to plump the carcasses somewhat.

Packing. After the ducks are thoroughly cooled
they are removed from the water and packed. Long
Island ducklings are usually packed in barrels.
Forty-five ducks will pack in a sugar barrel and 33
in a flour barrel. The proper number for the barrel
used is placed on hanging spring scales and weighed
before being packed. The best method of packing
is to lay the ducks on their sides. If they are packed
on their backs or bellies, the ice used between the
layers is apt to cause a cutting or bruising of the
soft abdomens and injure the appearance of the carcasses.
Between each layer of ducks a scoopful of
cracked ice is used although in cool weather it may
only be necessary to use half a scoop of ice. After
the barrel is packed it should be allowed to stand
for a while to settle. Then the top of the barrel
is piled up with cracked ice and covered with burlap.
On the side of the barrel is marked the number
of ducks and their weight. Later a card is
tacked alongside of this showing the consignee's and
the shipper's names as well as the number of ducks
and their weight.

Fig. 47. Dressed duckling. The main feathers of the tail and
wings and the feathers of the neck part of the way from the head
to the body are left on. The rest of the body is picked clean.
(Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department
of Agriculture.)

Fig. 48. After thorough cooling a sufficient number of ducks to
fill a barrel is weighed out and packed with or without ice depending
upon the weather. (Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry,
U. S. Department of Agriculture.)

Shipping. The barrels should be packed and
shipped the same evening. Shipping may be done[Pg 110]
either by express or by automobile truck. A good
many of the Long Island ducklings are now shipped
into New York City by truck.

Cooperative Marketing Association. The duck
growers on Long Island have formed a cooperative
marketing association. This association maintains
its own house in New York City and sells practically
the entire output of Long Island ducklings, controlling
probably 90%. During the year 1919 there were
in the neighborhood of 800,000 head of ducks marketed
through this house. Practically all of the capital
stock of this concern is held by the duck growers
and they are not allowed to sell any of their stock
without first offering it to the association.

Prices for Ducks. Early in the season the ducklings
bring the best prices, that is to say from March
1 to May 1. Then as the output of ducks increases
prices gradually drop. The heaviest shipments occur
in June, July and August. In September as the
output of ducks begins to drop off the price begins
to climb a little. The following prices as quoted in
the New York Produce Review show the range from
March, 1920, to June, 1921.

Long Island Ducklings—Fresh Dressed

The following quotations from the same source
give the prices for frozen Long Island ducklings.

Quotations from the same source are given below
to give some idea of the range in price of the live
Long Island spring ducklings and likewise of live
old Long Island ducks or breeders.

Long Island Spring Ducklings—Live.

Long Island Old Ducks or Breeders—Live

Shipping Ducks Alive. While the great majority
of ducks are shipped dressed there is some shipment
of live ducks. This is particularly true during
the Jewish holidays in March and in September and
October when the demand for live ducks and the
price paid for them is excellent. As a rule it pays
better to ship alive the ducks which are inclined to
be a little thin rather than to ship those which are
in top market condition. This is due to the fact
that fat ducks will shrink very considerably when
cooped and shipped alive, this shrinkage running
from one-half to three-quarters of a pound per head
where they are cooped not to exceed 12 to 15 hours.
The ducks which are in the fattest condition will
shrink the most. At the season of the year when
live ducks are in best demand it often pays to ship
alive the ducklings which are sorted out as not being
in the best condition rather than to hold them for
further fattening.[Pg 117]

Saving the Feathers. The feathers from the ducks
form quite an important source of revenue to the
duck farmers. As stated before the value of the
feathers will a little more than pay for the cost of
picking and since this is a considerable item of expense
the grower cannot afford to neglect the feathers.
The soft body feathers are kept separate from
the coarser feathers, the latter being thrown on the
floor as they are plucked. These coarser feathers
are later swept up and are commonly spoken of as
sweepings. Feathers from dry-picked ducks are superior
in quality and bring a better price but most
of the duck feathers now marketed from commercial
duck farms are scalded feathers. The feathers after
each day's killing are gathered up and spread out in
a loft where they can be placed in a layer not over 3
or 4 inches deep. This should be an airy place so as
to give the feathers a good place to dry out. On the
second day they are scraped up in a pile and then
spread out again, thus turning them over and changing
their position. They are then left until they are
dry enough to sack which should be in a little over
a week. Unless the feathers are thoroughly dried
out they will heat when sacked and this will seriously
hurt their market quality. When dry they are
packed either in the large special feather sacks
made for this purpose or in smaller sacks, about as
big as two bran sacks, which will hold from 60 to 80
pounds of feathers. The feathers are shipped to
regular feather dealers or manufacturers.[Pg 118]

Fig. 49. A valuable by-product of duck plants. The feathers from a duck will pay for the cost of
picking. (Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.)

Prices and Uses of Duck Feathers. The soft body
feathers and the coarser feathers often called
"sweepings" should be kept and sold separate.
While scalded feathers are not worth as much as dry
picked feathers, the former if properly dried out or
cured will find a ready sale. Feathers packed before
they are thoroughly dried out, are likely to arrive
at their destination in a matted and musty or
heated condition. This, of course, injures their quality
and the price paid for them is discounted according
to their condition.

The soft body feathers of ducks are used almost
entirely for bedding purposes, that is, are put in pillows
and feather beds. White feathers are preferred
and usually bring a somewhat higher price.

The prices paid for the feathers vary quite widely
at different times of the year, and in different sections
of the country, and also of course with the condition
of the feathers themselves. The quotations
given below represent the prices paid in June, 1921.

Marketing Eggs. On commercial duck farms very
few eggs are marketed. This is due to the fact that
the duck growers find it more profitable to incubate
all eggs suitable for that purpose and to rear and[Pg 119]
market the ducklings rather than to sell the eggs.
There are always, however, a certain number of
cracked eggs and others which may be too large or
too small to use for hatching and which are therefore
marketed. In addition the infertile eggs tested
out on the 5th day are sold. The eggs may be packed
in ordinary 30 dozen egg cases such as are used for
hens' eggs, utilizing a special filler 5 cells square.
With these fillers a case holds 20 5-6 dozen duck
eggs. A special duck case, holding 30 dozen duck
eggs may be used, the fillers in this case being 6
cells square like the fillers used for hens' eggs. The
cells in these fillers are 2 inches square and 2¼ or
2½ inches deep.

[Pg 120]

CHAPTER VIII


Duck Raising on the Farm

Duck raising as ordinarily conducted on the general
farm consists of the keeping of a comparatively
small flock purely as a side line. Ducks on the general
farm may be kept for the production of meat
and eggs, for egg production, or mainly as a breeding
proposition where the idea is to produce birds
of exhibition quality. On occasional farms ducks of
the rarer breeds are kept mainly for ornamental
purposes.

Conditions Suitable for Duck Raising. A small
flock of ducks on the farm can be kept to best advantage
where they can be separated from the
other poultry and where they can have access to a
pasture or an orchard which will provide them with
a plentiful supply of green feed. Ducks stand confinement
quite well but if they are closely confined
it is necessary to provide for them the green feed
which they cannot secure for themselves. On many
farms the flock of ducks is allowed to range at liberty
and under these conditions the cost of maintaining
them is much lower since they pick up a considerable
part of their feed. An enclosed run or yard,
however, should be available where they can be con[Pg 121]fined
when desired. It is also necessary to provide
a house or shed in which they can be shut at night
and during the early morning. Otherwise, many
of the eggs may be dropped anywhere about the
place or in the water with the result that some of
them will be lost. A pond or stream to which the
ducks can have access and in which they can swim
is a great advantage since it helps to keep them in
good breeding condition. It is a common but mistaken
idea that low, wet land is best suited for
ducks.

Size of Flock.—The average farm flock of ducks
is small, rarely running over 15 to 20 head. In many
cases not over 10 or 12 ducks with one or two drakes
will be kept. A flock of this size will furnish quite
a large number of ducks for the farmer's table or
for sale in addition to more or less eggs which can
either be used at home or sold.

Making a Start. In making a start with a farm
flock of ducks it is probably best to figure on keeping
only a few head. If the farmer begins with 4 or
5 ducks and one drake he can make his start at
small expense and from this number he will be able
to increase the size of his flock if he finds that results
warrant it. Probably the best way to make a
start is to purchase the desired breeding stock in the
fall. This will give the ducks a chance to get settled
and to be in good condition and accustomed to
their quarters by spring so that they will begin to
breed and lay.[Pg 122]

Eggs for hatching can be purchased if desired
and the young ducklings hatched and reared with
chicken hens. Baby ducks are rarely purchased in
making a start as are baby chicks.

Selecting the Breed. Any one of the breeds forming
the so-called meat class will prove satisfactory
for a farm flock. This class includes the Pekin,
Aylesbury, Muscovy, Rouen, Cayuga, Buff and Blue
Swedish. The birds of any of these breeds are of
good size and therefore produce a suitable table
fowl. At the same time they are layers and will
produce eggs for the table or for market as well.
Where the purpose in keeping the ducks is mainly
that of producing eggs for market the Runner is undoubtedly
the breed to select. While these ducks
are smaller in size the ducklings will make good
carcasses of broiler size for the table being killed for
this purpose when about 2½ to 3 pounds in weight.
In addition, the Runner is the best laying breed and
by many persons is considered to be equal in its egg
producing qualities to any of the breeds of chickens.

Selection of any breed or variety of the meat or
egg classes and especially the selection of a breed
or variety for ornamental purposes or for the pleasure
of breeding will depend upon the individual
preference of the owner for body shape, color of
plumage and other characteristics. A pure breed
of some kind should by all means be kept in preference
to the common or so-called "puddle" duck. Not
only will the pure breeds give greater uniformity in[Pg 123]
the carcasses produced but the results in egg production
will likewise be better.

Age of Breeding Stock. The best results in breeding
are secured from ducks during their first laying
season. Not only is egg production better but they
are less likely to become so fat and large as to interfere
with the fertility and hatchability of the
eggs. In fact, on commercial duck farms the breeding
stock is entirely renewed each year. However,
ducks can be profitably kept until they are 2 or 3
years old, and it is common practice in a farm flock
to hold over some of the breeders after they have
finished their first year. Of course, where the duck
breeder has some especially fine stock which will
produce just the quality he desires in the offspring,
he holds and utilizes these birds just as long as they
are in good breeding condition. As a rule it is best
not to hold breeding ducks after they have finished
their second laying season.

Size of Matings. The proper number of ducks
which should be mated to a drake varies with the
different breeds. Pekins and Aylesbury can be
mated in the proportion of one drake to 6 to 8 ducks.
In the Rouen mate 4 or 5 ducks to a drake and in
the Cayuga 5 or 6 ducks to a drake. In the Muscovy
as high as 10 females may be mated with one male.
In the Blue Swedish and Buff mate in the proportion
of 6 or 7 ducks to one drake. In the Call and East
India breeds from 5 to 8 ducks can be mated to one[Pg 124]
drake. In the Crested White use 5 or 6 ducks and
in the Runner 6 to 8 ducks to a drake.

Where young drakes are used more ducks can be
mated to them than is the case with old drakes. It is
also true that where especially large exhibition
birds have been reserved for breeding purposes it is
necessary to reduce the number of ducks mated to a
drake as otherwise the fertility is very likely to run
lower with these older heavier ducks.

Breeding and Laying Season. Under ordinary
farm conditions where the ducks receive only fairly
good care and feed the laying does not begin to any
extent until February or March. With exceptional
care the ducks will begin to lay in January and a
few may even lay in December. The ducks lay very
persistently and continue their laying until hot
weather sets in or usually about the first of July.
They gradually let up in their laying until it ceases
almost entirely soon after that date. The breeding
season is at its height in the months of April and
May. At this time the fertility will run best and the
results in hatching will be most satisfactory. However,
it is possible to continue to hatch the duck
eggs which are produced with fair results as long
as the ducks continue to lay.

Management of Breeders.

Housing. Some sort of house or shelter must be
provided for the breeding flock. Any available shed[Pg 125]
or a part of the poultry house may be utilized for
this purpose. No special requirements are necessary
except that the house should provide sufficient
ventilation. This is best furnished by means of a
window and in addition, an opening in the front of
the house should be provided which can be closed
by means of a curtain during severe winter weather.
A board floor is not necessary if the dirt floor
is filled up 6 or 8 inches above the ground level outside
the house. The floors should be provided with
an abundance of litter which is usually changed only
once or twice during the year. As the litter tends
to become dirty more litter must be added. No
equipment is necessary in the houses as the birds
rest on the floor and lay their eggs anywhere about
the house or wherever they may make their nests.
The house should be so arranged that the ducks can
be shut in at night and can be kept there until they
have finished laying in the morning. As most of the
duck eggs are laid early in the morning they can be
let out by 8 or 9 o'clock in the summer. If let out
earlier than this they are likely to lay some of their
eggs in the pond or stream to which they have access
and these would be lost.

Feeding. On many farms the breeding flock of
ducks is fed on the same ration which is given the
farm fowls. However, better results will be obtained
if they are given special feeds. After the laying
season is over the breeding ducks can be fed
sparingly on a mash consisting of one part by weight[Pg 126]
corn meal, 2 parts bran, 1 part low grade wheat
flour, 1 part green feed, 8% beef scrap and 3%
oyster shell. This mash is mixed up with water until
it has a consistency just between sticky and crumbly.
It should never be fed in a sloppy condition. A feed
of this mash should be given in the morning and at
night and during the long days of summer it is well
also to give a light feed of cracked corn or mixed
grains in the middle of the day. However, judgment
must be used in feeding ducks especially if
they have range over which they can roam where
they can pick up more or less animal feed and other
material. In this case it is not necessary to feed nearly
so much. Another mash which may be used instead
of the one given consists of 3 parts by measure of
corn meal, 4 parts bran, 2 parts low grade wheat
flour, three-fourths part beef scrap and 2 parts
green feed with a supply of oyster shell.

Along about December 1 the feed should be
changed with the idea of inducing egg production.
A feed consisting of one part by weight corn meal,
1 part low grade flour or middlings, 1 part bran,
15% beef scrap, 15% vegetables or green feed together
with oyster shell should be fed morning and
evening and in addition a feed consisting of corn
and wheat may be given at noon in a quantity of
about one quart for each 30 ducks. As much mash
should be given them at the morning and evening
feed as they will clean up.

Another good mash feed which may be used con[Pg 127]sists
of 2 parts by weight of bran, 2 parts middlings,
2 parts corn meal, 1 part beef scrap, 1 part ground
oats and one-tenth of the total weight sand. In addition,
of course, green feed must be added to the
ration if it is not available at all times in the yard.
This mash is fed in the morning and in the evening.
The noon feed consists of 1 part by weight of corn
and 2 parts oats. Where green feed is not available
and must be supplied, cut clover, alfalfa, rye, oats
and corn may be utilized cut up into short pieces and
mixed in the mash. The mash should be fed either
to breeding stock or to ducklings on flat trays or
boards rather than in troughs as the ducks can get
at it better in this form. It must be kept in mind that
while ducks are good egg producers during the laying
and breeding season they will not lay any great
number of eggs unless they are fed for this purpose.
For rations used on commercial duck farms see
Chapter IV.

Water. It is important that a plentiful supply of
drinking water be available to the ducks. A fresh
supply must be provided at each feeding time before
the feed is thrown to the ducks as they like to
eat and drink alternately when feeding. Where the
breeding ducks have access to a stream or pond of
fresh water it is not necessary to provide any other
supply of drinking water.

Where water is available in which the ducks can
swim it is essential to see that provision is made so
that the ducks can get in and out of the water[Pg 128]
easily. If this is not done they may become exhausted
and unable to climb out or they may become
partially cramped when the water is very cold with
the result that they will drown. If given access to
water in which they can swim during cold weather
it is necessary to be on the look-out to see that the
ducks do not freeze fast to the ground when they
come out of the water.

Yards. Where yards are provided for ducks
poultry netting about 2 feet high is ordinarily used.
This will confine most of the breeds but higher fences
even 5 or 6 feet high must be provided for the
breeds which fly readily such as the Muscovy, Call,
East India, Mallard, Wood and Mandarin. In some
cases it is even necessary to cover over the tops of
the yards in order to keep the birds from flying out
or to pinion the birds, that is, to cut off the outermost
joint of one wing. The netting used for yards
should be strung on posts set in the ground and the
lower edge should be pegged down so that the birds
cannot get under it.

Care of Eggs for Hatching. Duck eggs for hatching
must be gathered each day and should be put in
some cool place to be held until they are set. They
should be turned daily, the same as hens' eggs and
the general care is exactly similar. It does not, however,
pay to keep duck eggs as long before setting
them as they spoil more quickly than hens' eggs. In
fact, it is best to set duck eggs when they are not
over a week old if this can be arranged.[Pg 129]

Hatching the Eggs. The period of incubation for
duck eggs ranges from 26 to 28 days for all of the
breeds except the Muscovy. In this breed it takes
from 33 to 36 days for the eggs to hatch. Inasmuch
as most of the commonly kept breeds are not very
broody and therefore do not make reliable hatchers
and mothers it is necessary to resort either to the
use of chicken hens for this purpose or else to utilize
incubators. Either one of these methods can be used
with good success. With the small farm flock it is
very common to utilize hens. The ordinary hen will
be able to cover 9 to 11 duck eggs to advantage depending
on her size and upon the season of the year.
In cold weather the smaller number should be used
rather than the larger number. Before setting the
hen she should be thoroughly dusted with insect
powder to free her from lice. Several hens can be set
in the same room but they should be confined on their
nests allowing them to come off only once a day for
feed and water. Cracked corn makes an excellent
feed for sitting hens. If desired Muscovy, Call, East
India, Mallard, Wood or Mandarin ducks can be allowed
to make their nests and to hatch their eggs as
they are reliable sitters and good mothers.

After the duck eggs first pip there usually elapses
a longer period of time before the ducklings get out
of the shell than is the case with chicks. For this
reason it is well to take the hens off for feed and
water when the first eggs are pipped returning them[Pg 130]
to the nest as quickly as possible and confining them
there until the hatch is over.

During the last week of incubation it is desirable
to sprinkle the eggs daily with water using quite a
liberal amount as duck eggs seem to require more
moisture than hens' eggs in order to hatch well.

All duck eggs which are at all badly soiled should
be washed before they are set. Washing does not
seem to injure their hatching qualities. In fact,
some breeders prefer to wash all duck eggs whether
dirty or not, feeling that this opens up the pores and
causes a better hatch. This belief is based upon the
idea that when ducks hatch their own eggs under
natural conditions they have access to water in
which they swim and in coming back on the nest
their wet feathers serve to wash the eggs.

Where an incubator is used for hatching the eggs
are placed in the machine just as hens' eggs. For
the first week the temperature is kept about 102 degrees
and for the rest of the period is maintained
as close to 103 degrees as possible, the bulb of the
thermometer being on a level with the tops of the
eggs. Often the temperature will run up a little
higher than this at hatching time but this does not
do any harm. An incubator will accommodate from
four-fifths to five-sixths as many duck eggs as it will
hens' eggs.

About the fifth or sixth day the duck eggs are
tested and all infertile and dead germs removed.
From this time on eggs are turned twice a day and[Pg 131]
usually cooled once a day until they pip. A second
test may be made about the fifteenth or sixteenth
day when any eggs which have died are removed. If
dead germ eggs are left in the machines they spoil
very quickly and cause a strong odor which makes it
necessary to remove them. During the last week or
ten days and in some cases for a longer period than
this incubator operators supply moisture daily to the
machine. This is usually provided by sprinkling the
eggs liberally with water which has been warmed to
about the temperature of the machine. However,
if warm water is not available, water of ordinary
temperature may be used although it is not well to
use extremely cold water. As a rule the eggs begin
to pip about the twenty-sixth day. At this time the
machine should be tightly closed up and left so until
the hatching is over. In case moisture seems to
be lacking and the ducklings are having a hard
time to get out of the shell the machine can be
opened and the eggs sprinkled again. If there seems
to be sufficient moisture, however, the machines
should not be opened or disturbed. As a rule it
takes ducklings from 24 to 48 hours to hatch after
the pipping first begins. It is advisable to leave the
ducklings in the incubator until they are well dried
off before removing them to the brooder. As a rule
the hatching will be entirely over by the twenty-eighth
day.

Brooding and Rearing. Ducklings can be brooded
if desired by means of chicken hens. In this case[Pg 132]
the ducklings which the hen hatches should be given
to her and she should be confined to some kind of a
coop which will allow the ducklings to run at liberty.
If the hen is given her liberty she goes
too far and takes too much exercise for the
little ducks. Where artificial brooders are used
any type of brooding apparatus can be utilized
which is used with success for chickens. It must be
remembered, however, that ducklings do not require
as high a degree of heat as do baby chicks and
should be started off at a temperature of about 90
degrees under the hover. This can be reduced rather
rapidly until it is down to 80 at about 2 weeks of
age. The length of time that the ducklings require
heat after this depends upon the season and the
weather. Even in fairly cool weather they do not
need any heat after they are 5 or 6 weeks old.

It is necessary to keep the brooders clean and in
order to do this they must be cleaned out frequently
and new litter supplied. While the ducklings are
small the brooders should be cleaned at least every
other day and as they get larger, cleaning once a
week with the addition of fresh litter between times
will be sufficient.

Feeding the Ducklings. Ducklings do not need to
be fed until they are from 24 to 36 hours old. At
this time they may be given a mixture composed of
equal parts by measure of rolled oats and bread
crumbs with 3% of sharp sand mixed in the feed.
This may be given them five times daily although[Pg 133]
some duck raisers feed only 3 times daily from the
start. About the third day this feed is changed to
equal parts of bread, rolled oats, bran and corn
meal. After the seventh day the ration may consist
of 3 parts bran, 1 part each of low-grade wheat flour
and corn meal, 10% green feed, 5% beef scrap with
about 3% of sand mixed in.

The ducklings should be fed four times daily after
the seventh day until they are two or three weeks
old. After that time they need be fed only three
times daily, morning, noon and night. The sand
may be given to the ducklings either by mixing it in
the mash or by feeding it in a hopper where they can
help themselves. The mash feed which is prepared
for the ducklings is mixed with water until it has a
consistency a little wetter than crumbly but not
exactly sticky. Sloppy feed should never be used.
As the ducklings grow older the amount of beef
scrap can be increased until it consists of 15% of
the ration by the end of the third week. The proportion
of corn meal can likewise be increased and
simultaneously the amount of bran decreased until
the ducklings are on a fattening ration. Unless they
have a plentiful supply of green feed in the yards
to which they have access it is necessary to provide
this to the extent of about 10% of the feed and it
should consist of tender green stuff rather finely
chopped and mixed in with the mash.

About 2 weeks before the ducklings are to be
marketed they should be put on a ration consisting[Pg 134]
of three parts by weight of corn meal, two parts
low-grade flour or middlings, one part bran, one-half
part beef scrap, 10% green feed and about 3%
oyster shell or sand. This mash is fed three times
daily. Another ration which can be used for fattening
purposes consists of 3 parts corn meal, 1 part
low-grade wheat flour, 1 part bran, 5% beef scrap
and 3% oyster shell with green feed and grit in addition.

Where fish is available it can be substituted for
the beef scrap but on most farms this is impractical.
The fish where fed is boiled and mixed in the mash.
However, no fish should be fed up to within 2 weeks
before the ducks are killed as there is danger of
giving a fishy taste to the carcass. For additional
information as to feeding methods used on commercial
duck farms which could be utilized to advantage
for the farm flocks, see Chapter VI.

Birds which are to be reserved for breeders
should be selected out and taken away from the
ducklings which are to be fattened. These breeding
birds should be carried along on the ration
which they have been receiving until about December
1 when they should be put on a laying ration.

It is very necessary to see that the ducklings have
a plentiful supply of drinking water. It is especially
important to renew this supply just before the
ducklings are fed so that they will have ample water
while they are consuming their feed. The water
should be given in dishes deep enough so that the[Pg 135]
ducks can immerse their entire bill as this enables
them to wash the sand out of their nostrils.

Water for Ducklings. In addition to the drinking
water provided duck raisers sometimes allow the
growing ducklings access to water in which they can
swim. If it is desired to fatten the ducklings quickly
and turn them off on the market as green ducks many
raisers do not consider this advisable as it induces
the ducklings to take more exercise and makes it
more difficult to fatten them. However, access to
water in which they can swim makes it unnecessary
to provide any other supply of drinking water and
for this reason lessens the work considerably. Unless
it is easy for the ducklings to get in and out of the
water there is danger of some of them drowning as
they are likely to get tired and unable to climb
out. Little ducklings allowed access to very cold
water are subject to cramp and may be drowned as
a result.

Distinguishing the Sexes. It is difficult to distinguish
the sexes of growing ducks until they begin to
reach maturity. There is, however, a difference in
their appearance. The drakes are coarser or thicker
and more masculine in appearance showing this especially
about the head and neck. Also as they secure
their mature plumage the drake shows curled
feathers on top of the tail which are often referred
to as sex feathers. In addition, the voice of the duck
is harsher and coarser than that of the drake.

Marketing the Ducks. Most of the ducks pro[Pg 136]duced
on farms are marketed alive. This is because
the farmer has no special market and he does not
find that it pays him to dress and ship the ducks
with the chance that they might spoil. In fact, most
of the farm raised ducks are not turned off as green
ducks at 10 to 12 weeks as is done on the commercial
duck plants but are held until fall and then sold
as spring ducks. They will weigh somewhat more
at that time but as a rule the price received per
pound will be lower than that obtained for green
ducks during the spring and summer. Where there
is a special demand for ducklings which the farmer
can supply it will pay him to dress and deliver the
ducks. If it is desired to dress the ducks, the directions
given under Chapter VII can be modified to
suit the farmer's needs. The soft body feathers
should be saved in accordance with the directions
given on page 106, as they can be used at home in
making pillows or can be sold.

Such eggs as are produced in surplus may either
be utilized on the home table or sent to market. As
a rule duck eggs are not in great demand except at
certain seasons such as at Easter and during the
Jewish holidays in the spring and fall when they
bring somewhat higher prices than hens' eggs. The
larger size of duck eggs, however, makes them
favored by bakers and they can usually be sold at
any time in a city of any size at prices as good as
those received for hens' eggs.

Eggs for market can be packed in the ordinary[Pg 137]
30-dozen hen egg cases by using special fillers which
hold 25 eggs instead of 36 as in the case of hens'
eggs. See page 119. A farmer with a small flock of
ducks will usually not have eggs enough to fill a case
frequently and for this reason he usually finds it
more convenient to market the few eggs he has by
taking them into town in a basket.

Disease and Insect Pests. Ducks are very little
troubled by insect pests, nor are they greatly
troubled by diseases. The usual difficulties encountered
along this line are those discussed under this
head in Chapter VI. Losses are often experienced as
the result of predatory animals. Rats will cause a
great amount of havoc among the young ducks if
they are able to get at them. A single night's work
on the part of one rat may practically clean out a
small flock of ducklings. It is necessary to make
sure that the ducklings are shut in at night so that
rats cannot get at them.

[Pg 139]

GEESE


PART II.

[Pg 141]

CHAPTER IX


Extent of the Industry—Opportunities

Geese can be raised successfully in practically all
parts of the United States and are in fact scattered
in small flocks over a considerable portion of the
country being most abundant in the South and in the
Middle West.

The census figures for the year 1920 show Illinois
with 195,769 geese to be the leading state in numbers,
closely followed by Missouri, Arkansas
and Iowa. Next in order of importance as goose
raising states come Kentucky, Tennessee, Minnesota,
North Carolina and Texas. The census figures
of 1920 compared with those for 1910 show a decrease
in the number of geese from 4,431,980 to
2,939,203. The only groups of states which showed
an increase in the number of geese during this
period were the North Atlantic and the Mountain
states. Of the total farms in the United States only
a small proportion, probably one-tenth, have any
geese and the number of geese per farm would not
average over 4 to 10 depending on the section.

Nature of the Industry. Geese are kept almost
wholly in small flocks as a side line on general[Pg 142]
farms. The purpose of goose raising is primarily
one of the production of meat although in the past
flocks of geese have been kept to some extent, particularly
in the south for the purpose of plucking
them to secure the feathers. This practice of plucking
live geese is decreasing and is much less common
than formerly. The eggs of the geese do not
enter to any extent into the egg trade of the country.
As a rule all the eggs produced are hatched for
the purpose of rearing young geese and it is only
occasionally that goose eggs are used for culinary
purposes.

Opportunities for Goose Raising. Undoubtedly the
greatest opportunity along the line of goose raising
lies in the small flock kept on the general farm.
Where conditions are suitable, that is to say, where
there is an abundance of suitable pasture land together
with some water to which the geese can have
access, a small flock can be most profitably kept.
They can be reared very cheaply as both the young
and old geese will secure practically their entire living
during the summer from pasture if an abundant
supply of suitable green material is available. The
cost of rearing them therefore is low. In addition
both the young and old geese are very hardy and
require comparatively little care. They are little
subject to disease and therefore losses are small.

Geese live and breed for a long time and this
makes it possible to turn off to market a larger proportion
of the young stock reared than is the case[Pg 143]
with most other classes of poultry. For all of these
reasons, therefore, a small flock of geese will return
a good profit to the farmer without having to supply
any great amount of equipment or without having
to feed very much in the way of expensive feeds. In
addition to the geese which can be marketed, the
maintenance of a small flock also helps to provide a
variety in the farmer's diet by furnishing suitable
birds for the holiday seasons such as Thanksgiving
and Christmas.

In addition to the opportunity for goose raising in
small flocks on general farms there likewise exists
a definite opportunity to specialize along this line
somewhat more extensively. In certain places, notably
the state of Wisconsin, goose raising becomes a
more important activity on some farms than merely
that of a by-product. Larger numbers are reared
and special steps are taken in fattening and finishing
them for market either by means of pen fattening
or by means of hand fattening or noodling the
geese. Geese so finished for market bring a special
price and allow a good profit to the raiser for the
time which he has put into them.

An outgrowth of the goose raising industry which
has been worked to a limited extent consists of the
gathering together of the geese raised in any particular
portion of the country on one farm and the
feeding of them there in large flocks in the fields so
as to fatten them for market. There are not many
of these special fattening farms but several persons[Pg 144]
in different sections of the country who have made a
practice of gathering together and marketing the
geese in this way have found it very profitable.
Probably a similar opportunity exists in certain
other sections where goose raising on the farms in
small numbers is common and where no one has yet
made the effort to collect and fatten the geese before
marketing them.

While geese are not exhibited to the same extent
as chickens, still there will always be found a market
for birds of good quality, both for the purpose
of exhibition and also as breeders to be used in improving
the stock of other goose raisers.

Goose Raising as a Business for Farm Women.
Like turkey raising goose raising as a side line on
the farm offers an excellent money making opportunity
for the farm women. Without any great outlay
of capital to get a start and without its being necessary
to provide much in the way of buildings or
other equipment, a flock of geese can be started
which will allow a nice profit to the farm woman
for the care and attention which she gives them.
In this connection it should be remembered that
while the opportunities for profit may not be so large
as in turkey raising, yet the care required is much
less and the chances of serious difficulties due to disease
and to inability to raise the young stock are
relatively small. Goose raising therefore offers a
most profitable side line employment for the farm
woman.[Pg 145]

Geese as Weed Destroyers. As stated before
geese are close grazers. In fact, during the growing
season of the year green vegetation forms most and
in some cases practically all of their diet. The vegetation
which they will eat readily is quite varied and
in many cases geese will be found to be very valuable
in ridding pastures or fields of troublesome
weeds. In the southern states geese are often kept
on farms where cotton is raised for the purpose of
keeping the cotton fields free from weeds.

Objection to Geese

An objection to geese often expressed but without
good foundation is that they will spoil the pasture
for other stock. This is not true if the pasture is not
overstocked with geese. Of course geese are very
close grazers and if too many of them are kept on a
field they will eat the grass down so close that there
will be none for other animals to get. Similarly the
idea that other animals will not eat grass grown
where goose droppings have fallen is not true except
where the birds are too thick so that the grass is
soiled badly by the droppings.

The fact that geese are noisy creatures makes
them undesirable to some persons. It is true that
they make a good deal of noise and that their cry is
of a very hoarse, rasping character and to a person
with bad nerves they may be annoying but this is
no valid or weighty objection to the normal, healthy[Pg 146]
farmer. The Chinese geese are the noisiest and consequently
the greatest offenders in this particular.

A more valid objection to geese lies in the fact of
their rather ugly disposition. Ganders, especially
as they grow older and during the breeding season,
are decidedly pugnacious and will not hesitate to attack
human beings. They strike heavy formidable
blows with their wings and with their strong bills
they inflict most painful bites. Where there are children
about the house it may be necessary to dispose
of ugly ganders to safeguard the children from serious
injury.

[Pg 147]

CHAPTER X


Breeds and Varieties—How to Mate to Produce
Exhibition Specimens—Preparing Geese for the
Show—Catching and Handling

Breeds of Geese. There are six standard breeds
of geese consisting of the following: Toulouse, Embden,
African, Chinese, Wild or Canadian and Egyptian.
All of these breeds consist of a single variety
with the exception of the Chinese which is composed
of two. The Toulouse is known as the Gray Toulouse,
the Embden as the White Embden, the African
as the Gray African, the two varieties of the Chinese
as the Brown Chinese and the White Chinese, the
Wild or Canadian as the Gray and the Egyptian as
the Colored.

The first four of these breeds are the ones which
are commonly kept in domestication. In a general
way it may be said that these breeds are meat
breeds for the reason that they are kept mainly for
the production of meat. The Wild or Canadian
and the Egyptian are more in the nature of ornamental
breeds since they are not so commonly kept
and are principally to be found where ornamental
water-fowls are maintained. The Chinese are sometimes
classed as ornamental geese on account of[Pg 148]
their smaller size but they are much more commonly
kept than either the Canadian or the Egyptian and
make a good market fowl where the demand is not
for such a large carcass.

In addition to the standard breeds there are several
other rare breeds among which is the Sebastapol
which is kept purely as an ornamental breed
by reason of its peculiar feathering. The Sebastapol
is a white goose in which the feathers of the
upper part of the body show a twisted or frizzled
condition which gives it much the general effect of
the feathers being curled. In addition to the standard
breeds of geese there are kept on a great majority
of farms ordinary common geese of no definite
breed or variety. These geese in general are of
smaller size than the larger standard breeds and
have probably arisen as the result of the crossing of
the standard breeds and the subsequent deterioration
in size and color marking is due to careless
breeding and selection.

In some sections and for certain special purposes
definite crosses of standard breeds are made for the
production of table geese having certain desired
qualities. For this purpose the African ganders are
very popular used upon the Toulouse geese. To some
extent there is produced and marketed a goose
known as the mongrel goose. This has excellent
table quality and is in good demand on account of
its superior eating qualities and its rapid growth. It
is produced by using the Wild or Canadian gander[Pg 149]
upon Toulouse, African or Embden geese. The result
of this cross is a hybrid goose which has much
the appearance of the Wild goose but which will
not breed although the females will lay eggs. As a
rule Toulouse or African females are used for the
cross rather than Embden as from the latter there
is a greater tendency to get a lighter cross which
would not resemble its Wild father so closely and
might not therefore be so readily recognized as genuine
mongrel geese.

Nomenclature. The term geese is used to indicate
the birds of both sexes taken as a whole and also as a
plural form for the word goose. The term goose is used
to distinguish the female of the species. The male
is given the specific name of gander to distinguish
it from goose. The young of both sexes are termed
goslings. In giving the standard weights for the
different breeds of geese the birds are classified as
adult ganders and young ganders and as adult geese
and young geese. By adult goose or gander is meant
a bird which is over one year old, by young goose or
gander is meant a bird which is less than one year.
Not infrequently in connection with market reports
use will be made of the term "green geese". This indicates
birds which are marketed when they are of
large size but still young and immature, the green
referring to this immature condition.

Size. An idea of the size of the different standard
breeds of geese can best be secured by giving the
standard weights. They are as follows:[Pg 150]

Popularity of the Breeds. Of the different standard
breeds kept the Toulouse is undoubtedly the
most popular in this country probably due to its large
size as well as to its quick growth. The Embden follows
the Toulouse closely in popularity. The Chinese
geese are probably third most numerous in numbers
while the African ranks fourth. In certain sections
the African seems to be very popular and one would
expect to find more of this breed than seem to be
present on farms. Neither the Canadian nor the
Egyptians are to be found in any great numbers, the
latter in particular being very rare.

Egg Production

It must always be remembered in speaking of the
egg production of any breed of poultry that there
will be a considerable variation in individuals within
a breed and that egg production will also be affected
very largely by the conditions under which
the birds are kept. For this reason any attempt to[Pg 151]
give an average egg production for a breed is at
best only an approximation. These approximations
often serve, however, to show some well established
contrast between the different breeds with respect
to their egg laying ability. The Toulouse is a fairly
prolific breed of geese and individuals should average
from 12 to 36 eggs, the majority laying about
20 eggs. The Embden is very similar to the Toulouse
in laying ability although probably on the
whole not quite so good a layer. The African is
generally considered a good layer and is said to
average from 20 to 40 eggs. Some breeders state
that the pure African are not as good layers as this,
being about equal to the Embden and that the better
laying Africans really have some Brown Chinese
blood in them which has been introduced to increase
prolificacy. The Chinese is the most prolific breed.
The birds of either the White or Brown variety
should average from 60 to 100 eggs. The eggs laid
by the Chinese are smaller than those of the Toulouse,
Embden or African. The Wild or Canadian
and the Egyptian geese are small layers. They
rarely lay more than one sitting during a season and
the eggs will as a rule range from 4 to 8 in number.

Size of Goose Eggs. Goose eggs are decidedly
larger than duck eggs. There is a considerable variation
in size, depending upon the breed. The eggs
of the Toulouse, African and Embden are of about
the same size and will vary from 6½ to 8 ounces each.
The eggs of the Chinese are smaller and will weigh[Pg 152]
from 5½ to 6 ounces each, while eggs of the Canadian
and Egyptian are the smallest of the standard
breeds, running from 5 to 5½ ounces each.

Color of Goose Eggs. In general goose eggs are
whitish in color but may shade to a gray or buff
tinge. The Wild or Canadian sometimes lay eggs
which are off the white, showing a considerable
green tinge.

About Geese and Matings

Broodiness. All of the breeds of geese with the
exception of the Toulouse may be classed as broody
breeds, that is to say, they will make their nests and
hatch their young if given a chance to do so. Not
infrequently individuals of the Toulouse breed will
do this also but as a rule they are not dependable
for this purpose.

Size of Mating. In making the mating it is usual
in order to secure best results to use one gander with
from two to four geese in the Toulouse, Embden and
African breeds. In fact, better results will be secured
in these breeds where not over 3 geese are
used and in many cases the geese are mated in trios
or even in pairs. In the Chinese geese a somewhat
larger mating can be employed, one gander being
used with 4 to 6 geese. The Wild or Canadian and
the Egyptian geese in most cases pair only.

Age of Breeders. Geese can be retained and will
give good results as breeders for a longer period[Pg 153]
than most other classes of poultry. While the young
geese will often lay during their first year the results
from the eggs produced by them are not as a rule
very satisfactory. It is sometimes claimed that the
eggs of young geese will not hatch but this is untrue
and goslings have been raised from such eggs.
Canadian and Egyptian geese do not lay until they
are 3 years old. Females may be kept for breeding
purposes until they are 8 to 10 years old and should
give good results during this time. If they continue
to lay longer than this and are valuable breeding
individuals they should of course be retained just
so long as they lay at a profitable rate. Instances
are reported where geese 15 to 20 years old were
still giving good results as breeders. As a rule ganders
cannot be successfully kept for breeding purposes
as long as can the geese. Yearling ganders
are often used but they are at their best for breeding
purposes when from 3 to 5 years old and it is
not generally wise to retain them after they are 6 or
7 years old. Egyptian and Canadian ganders will
not breed before they are 2 years old. In general
it is good practice to mate young ganders to older
geese and to mate younger geese with older ganders
as this seems to get better results both in fertility
and in hatching.

Marking Young Geese. It is often desirable to
mark young geese in some way so that their breeding
can be told or so that a record can be kept of
their age. This can be readily accomplished by[Pg 154]
punching various combinations of holes in the webs
between the toes at the time the goslings are
hatched.

Considerations in Making the Mating.[4] In making
the mating in breeding geese it must be kept in
mind that it is of primary importance to select the
breeders first of all for size, prolificacy and vitality.
Without these qualities no matter what else the
breeding geese may be there is scant chance of satisfactory
results. Having selected birds which are
of suitable size and vitality those should then be
utilized for breeding which approach most nearly
both in type and color to the requirements as given
in the American Standard of Perfection. As a rule,
a new mating can be made by taking the birds selected
and shutting them up together in a pen away
from the other birds and out of sound of the voices
of their former mates. As a rule about a month of
this treatment will suffice to bring about the new
matings desired and the birds can then be allowed
to range at liberty.

Some ganders are very troublesome about mating.
This is particularly true as they get older. In
some cases it is impossible to get ganders to mate at
all while frequently they will refuse to mate with
more than one goose. As a rule, matings once made[Pg 155]
are permanent from year to year unless changed by
the breeder on account of poor results. Where new
matings are to be made or where changes are to be
made this should be done in the fall so that the birds
will have been mated for several months before the
breeding season begins in order to insure good results.
After the matings are made the geese can be
allowed to run together in larger flocks but the practice
is frequently employed of keeping the different
matings in pens to themselves so as to avoid the
fighting which will otherwise occur between the
ganders. During the breeding season the ganders
are quite savage and will fight fiercely.

Breeds of Geese[5]

The Toulouse. This breed is characterized by its
very low down deep broad massive body. The body
should come well down in front and should be so
deep and full behind that it tends to drag on the
ground when the bird walks. The skin of the rear
portion of the body should have folds. The appearance
or type of the Toulouse depends a great deal
upon the condition of flesh which a bird may be in
at the time as a fat well fleshed condition will improve
type very materially. A dewlap, that is to[Pg 156]
say, a pendulous flap of skin on the throat, is desired
but comparatively few birds show a well developed
dewlap. It is more likely to appear with age than
it is in the younger birds. In color the Toulouse
breeds quite true. The principal difficulty which is
encountered is the occasional appearance of one,
two or three white flight feathers in the wing. These
white flights constitute a disqualification and must
of course be avoided in the breeding. It is necessary
also to avoid any birds which lack in size, length,
breadth or depth of body, particularly depth in
front. Birds of this breed are of large size and
make quick growth and for this reason are a fine
market goose although the dark colored pin feathers
are somewhat of a drawback from a market point
of view.

The Embden. This breed is of good size but somewhat
smaller than the Toulouse. It has not quite so
long a keel or underline as the Toulouse and while
deep in body it is not so baggy. There should be no
dewlap in this breed. The plumage should be pure
white throughout, the only difficulty of any importance
occurring here being the occasional appearance
of slate on the backs of young geese. This,
however, is not serious as it almost invariably disappears
with the first moult. Embden geese are
rapid growers and mature early which together with
the fact that their plumage is white makes them an
excellent market bird.

The African. In type the African is much the[Pg 157]
same as the Toulouse although not quite as large
being about the size of the Embden. What is desired
is a low down body which is flat in keel and
without any folds of skin. The neck should be short.
This bird unlike the Toulouse is characterized by a
knob or protuberance extending out from the head
at the base of the upper bill. This knob should be
black in color and should show no tinge of yellow
on the top or about the base. If the knob gets
scarred or injured it is apt to turn yellow and freezing
likewise is apt to cause it to turn yellow. Birds
of this breed both young and old should show dewlaps,
the absence of these in adult specimens constituting
a disqualification. As in the Toulouse avoid
any white flight feathers. The African makes an
excellent market goose being like the Embden and
Toulouse, quick growing and early maturing. The
ganders are especially in favor for use in crossing
with other varieties for the production of market
geese. It seems probable that some Brown Chinese
blood has been crossed into the Africans on various
occasions probably for the purpose of increasing
the prolificacy of the African as the Brown Chinese
is an excellent layer. It is also true that crosses between
the Brown Chinese and the Toulouse are
sometimes shown for Africans but as a rule this
cross results in too dark a bird and such crosses
should never be used for breeding purposes since
they would not continue to give the uniformity and
other qualities obtained in the first generation.[Pg 158]

The Chinese. The Chinese is quite different in
type from the three preceding breeds. It is much
smaller and higher set on legs and has a body much
more upright in carriage. The neck is long and slender
and the head has a large knob. An important
part about the type is to secure a very slender neck,
another important point being to secure a very large
knob; the larger this is the better. There is, however,
a decided tendency for the knob to run small
when the neck is slender and it is difficult to secure
in perfection the combination of a very slender neck
and a large knob. The Chinese geese should be in
good condition but should not be too fat when shown
as too good a condition of flesh injures the type
materially. If fat there is a decided tendency for
the birds to bag down behind which is undesirable.
The Chinese geese are the best layers but the egg
which they lay is smaller. On account of their
smaller size they do not make as good market geese
where large sized carcasses are desired but where
smaller carcasses suitable for family use are in demand
the Chinese make a satisfactory market breed.

The Brown Chinese. In this variety the knob
should be dark brown or black. As in the African,
injury or freezing may turn the knob yellow which
is undesirable. The plumage should be a rich brown
shade of color, a faded gray color being very undesirable.
The stripe down the back of the neck should
be well defined and should be distinctly in contrast[Pg 159]
with the rest of the neck color. White feathers in
the primaries or secondaries must be avoided.

The White Chinese. The knob in this variety
should be orange and any tendency toward yellow
should be avoided. The plumage should be pure
white throughout. Occasional young females may
show slate in the back but this is not serious as it
almost invariably disappears with the first moult.

The Wild or Canadian. Contrary to expectation
this breed when domesticated is very peaceable and
very tame. There is often, however, a tendency for
them to grow uneasy when the migratory season
comes. To keep the birds from flying away it is
necessary to clip the flight feathers of one wing or
what is safer still to pinion the bird. Pinioning consists
of cutting off the first joint of one wing. This
may be done when the birds are small or may be
done at any time and does not seem to bother them
much. One of the best ways to accomplish this is
to break the joint and then cut it off by using a
chisel and hammer. Not much bleeding will result
but it is well to put a little iodine on the cut. These
birds breed very true in type and color and progress
in the mating simply consists of continuing to select
those birds for breeders which show markings in the
greatest excellence. In type a Canadian goose is
quite different from that of the other breeds mentioned.
It is smaller, set much higher on legs and its
body is neater and trimmer, and is oblong and carried
in a horizontal position. The neck is long and[Pg 160]
slender. These birds mate only in pairs as a rule
and the females do not mature and lay until they
are three years old. The ganders often breed when
they are two years old. Usually only a single sitting
of eggs is laid consisting of from 4 to 8. Usually,
however, all of these eggs will hatch and the young
prove to be strong and easily reared.

The Egyptian. This is the smallest of the standard
breeds of geese. In type it more nearly approaches
the Canadian than any other breed but it
is somewhat longer in legs, showing more of the
thigh beneath the body. The body is not carried in
quite such a horizontal position as the Canadian but
slopes downward slightly from the breast to the
tail. The neck is neither so long nor quite so slender
as that of the Canadian. This breed is the brightest
colored of any of the geese and breeds fairly true in
color and markings. Like the Canadian the Egyptian
goose is likely to become uneasy at times and
one wing should therefore be pinioned or the flight
feathers clipped to keep the birds from flying away.
Like the Canadian the Egyptians mate in pairs only
and lay but one sitting during the year. The females
do not lay until they are three years old.

Neither the Egyptian nor the Canadian geese
should be closely confined or no eggs will be laid.
The goose should be allowed to make her own nest
and hatch her eggs.[Pg 161]

Fig. 50. Left—Egyptian Gander. Right—Sebastapol Goose. (Photograph from the Bureau of Animal
Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.)

Fig. 51. Left.—Toulouse Gander. Right—Embden Gander. (Photographs from the Bureau of Animal
Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.)

Fig. 52. Left—Wild or Canadian Gander. Right—African Gander. (Photographs from the Bureau
of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.)

Fig. 53. Left—Brown Chinese Gander. Right—White Chinese Gander. (Photographs from the Bureau
of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.)

Preparing Geese for the Show

The preparation of geese for the show is comparatively
a simple matter. It requires first of all that
individuals shall be selected which approach nearest
to the standard requirements both in type and
in color. As to the actual preparation for exhibition
the geese are practically self-prepared. For a period
of at least a week or ten days before they are
shipped to the show they should be given access to
a grass range and to running water. The grass
range tends to put them in good condition while the
running water will give them an opportunity to clean
themselves. Any broken feathers should be plucked
at least six weeks before the birds are to be shown
so as to give them an opportunity to grow in new
ones.

Since all of the common breeds of geese, with the
exception of the Chinese, should be shown in a fat
condition in order to give them their best type they
should be given a grain mixture twice daily for a
period of at least ten days before the show in order
to get them in good flesh and to bring them up to
standard weight. This ration should consist of one
part corn and two parts oats. In Chinese geese
where it is desired to have them in good condition
of flesh but without showing any tendency toward
bagginess, oats alone should be fed as they are apt
to put on too much fat when corn is fed as well.
When the birds are shipped to the show they are[Pg 162]
quite likely to get their plumage soiled during the
journey. If this occurs fill a barrel about half full
of water. As the geese are taken from the shipping
coops place two of them at a time in the barrel,
cover it over and leave them for a few minutes. Then
take them out and they will usually be clean.

Catching and Handling Geese

Never catch geese by the legs which are weak and
are easily broken or injured. For the same reason
they should never be carried by the legs. In catching
geese grasp them by the neck just below the
head. Often a crooked stick is of value in getting
hold of the birds by the neck. Geese can be carried
short distances by the neck without injury but it is
not advisable to carry them for any considerable
distance in this manner, particularly if they are fat.
The best way to handle the geese is to catch them
by the neck, then place one arm over the shoulders
and around the bird's body thus holding the wings
in place while both legs are grasped with the hand.
The neck should be held with the other hand to
keep the bird from biting. In releasing the bird in
a pen or shipping coop do not let go of the neck
until the bird is placed where it is wanted.

Fig. 54—Proper manner of picking up and carrying geese with the head and neck under the arm.
(Photographs from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.)

Packing and Shipping Hatching Eggs

Goose eggs for hatching must be shipped when
they are fresh if they are to be received in good con[Pg 163]dition
and are to give good results in hatching.
They can be shipped long distances either by express
or by parcel post. In order to prevent breakage
and to lessen the effects of the jar to which the
eggs are subjected during shipment they should be
carefully packed in a market basket or other suitable
receptacle. The same method of packing the
eggs should be employed as with duck eggs described
on page 137.

Prices for Breeding Stock

While the demand for breeding stock is not so
broad with geese as it is with some other classes of
poultry, there does exist a steady and profitable demand
for this class of fowls. Goose eggs for hatching
are usually sold in sittings of 5 and the price
varies somewhat depending upon the variety. As
a rule, Embden and Toulouse eggs will bring from
60 cents to $1.20 each. Chinese goose eggs will
bring from 40 cents to $1 each while the eggs of the
African goose will bring from $1 to $2 each. Of
course the price of eggs for hatching like that of
breeding birds depends on the quality of the stock.
The prices for the birds themselves for breeding
purposes will run anywhere from about $8 to $10
apiece for good birds suitable for breeding on farm
flocks, to $25 or even $50 each of birds of especially
fine quality.

[Pg 164]

CHAPTER XI


Management of Breeding Geese

Range for Breeders. Since grass or other vegetation,
when plentiful, will furnish practically the entire
living both for breeding and growing geese, it
is by all means desirable to have suitable range for
the breeding stock. Aside from economy of production
range is desirable from the fact that the breeders
keep in better condition and better results in
breeding and fertility are obtained. The range for
breeding geese should therefore consist of grass
land or pasture. Often rather low wet land can be
used for this purpose, particularly if some higher
land is also available to provide a more favorable
kind of grass. Often geese can be ranged on the
same pasture with horses or cattle. Later in the season
after the harvest, both breeding and growing
geese can be given the range of the stubble fields to
good advantage as they will glean most of the shelled
grain. The entire flock of breeders is generally
allowed to run together but the flock may be divided
if desired, or each mating may be kept in a
colony by itself if the fighting of the ganders proves
troublesome.

Number of Geese to the Acre. The number of[Pg 165]
geese which can be kept or run to the acre depends
of course upon the nature of the land available for
the purpose. The better the pasture and therefore
the more green feed available throughout the summer
and fall, the more geese can be run. In general,
the practice is to run from 4 to 25 geese to an
acre; ten is a fair average under normal conditions.

Water for Breeding Geese. While water to which
the geese can have access for swimming is not absolutely
essential for their well being, they like it
and it is well to provide water if possible especially
during the breeding season. It not only takes care
of the problem of supplying drinking water, but in
the opinion of many goose raisers, increases the fertility
of the eggs laid. A natural water supply such
as a stream or pond in the pasture is therefore desirable,
but if none is available an artificial pond or
tank can be furnished to good advantage.

Distinguishing the Sex. It is difficult to distinguish
the sex of geese. It is, of course, necessary to
know the sex so as to provide the proper number of
ganders and so as to know what birds to pen together
in making a mating. Once the sex of a bird
is determined it is well for the novice to mark it by
means of a suitable leg band so that its sex can be
easily distinguished in the future.

It is more difficult to distinguish the sex of young
than of old geese. The gander is generally slightly
larger and coarser than the goose, with a longer,
thicker neck and larger head. The gander also has[Pg 166]
a shriller cry than the goose whose cry consists of a
harsher sound. Some goose raisers claim that they
can distinguish the sex of mature geese by the body
shape, the underline of the body of the gander from
the tail to the point where the legs join the body
being nearly straight, while in the goose this line
tends to round out with the fuller development
of the abdomen. This difference is more marked
during the laying season than at other times. Considerable
experience is necessary in order to distinguish
sex by any of the means described and the
really sure way is by an examination of the sexual
organs or by observing the actions of the geese when
mating.

Upon examination the sphincter muscle which
closes the anus of the female when stretched will
be found to have a folded appearance. If the gander
is placed upon his back and pressure applied
around the anus, the penis will protrude. This test
is more easily made on a mature than on an immature
gander and is also easier to make during warm
than during cold weather.

Purchase of Breeding Stock. Geese when mated
usually stay mated permanently. Matings are not,
therefore, changed from year to year as a rule so
long as they continue to give satisfactory results. If
it becomes necessary to make new matings or to
break up old matings, this should be done in the fall,
so that the birds will be thoroughly used to the new
order of things by the time the breeding season ar[Pg 167]rives,
and the results in eggs laid and young stock
grown will not, therefore, be adversely affected.
For this reason, any breeding stock purchased
should be secured in the fall rather than to wait until
just before the breeding season opens. As a rule,
also, a better selection of breeding stock to choose
from is available to the purchaser in the fall.

Time of Laying. Geese start laying in the early
spring and continue to lay throughout the spring.
With special attention given to the feeding, they
should begin in the northeastern part of the United
States about February 1 and should continue to lay
until about June 1 when geese of the heavier breeds
such as the Toulouse, African and Embden will generally
be pretty well through. Some individuals will
lay later than this and the Chinese geese also have
a rather longer laying season extending further into
the summer. The length of the laying season is also
affected by whether the geese are broken up when
they become broody or whether they are allowed to
sit. The latter practice, of course, stops the layings.
It must be remembered that the Canadian and Egyptian
as a rule lay only a single small setting of eggs
during the season.

As a rule geese lay during the night or the forenoon.
The frequency of laying varies, some geese
laying every other day while others lay more or less
often.

Housing. Geese withstand the weather very well
and do not need much in the way of houses or[Pg 168]
shelter except during winter and during severe
storms. In the North it is the usual practice and
good practice to provide shelter for the geese, which
may take the form of a poultry house, or of any shed
or barn available for the purpose. A shed with
openings on the south side makes an ideal goose
shelter or house. Most breeders in the South who
give their flocks good attention also provide shelter
for them during the winter although geese are also
successfully kept in that section without shelter.

The houses provided for the breeders must be
kept clean and as dry as possible. The best way to
do this is to bed them liberally with straw, shavings
or some similar material, especially during the winter.
As the bedding becomes soiled, more should be
added and the house should be cleaned out from
time to time and fresh litter put in.

No equipment for the houses is necessary. The
geese will lay their eggs in nests which they make
on the floor and if plenty of clean bedding is provided,
the eggs will not get badly soiled. Large
boxes, barrels, or similar shelter provided with an
abundance of nesting material may be scattered
about the range to provide places in which the geese
may make their nests.

Yards. Usually no yards are provided for geese
as they are allowed the range of a pasture or are
allowed to roam at liberty about the farm. Any ordinary
woven wire stock fence such as might be used
to fence a pasture will serve to keep the geese con[Pg 169]fined
as well as the other stock. If for any reason
it is desired to confine geese to a yard, the effort
should be made to provide yard enough so that the
geese will have a constant supply of green feed. In
a small yard this is impossible. A 2½ or 3 foot fence
is high enough to confine any of the common breeds
of geese and will also serve for Canadian and Egyptian
geese if they have been pinioned which should
always be done.

Feeding the Breeding Geese. While the flock of
geese may be allowed to pick most of their living
from a good grass range during the summer and fall,
it is necessary to feed them during the winter. In
fact during the summer it may be necessary to feed
them lightly on grain or wet mash if the pasture gets
short. The quantity of feed necessary for this purpose
depends upon the condition of the pasture and
must be judged by the condition of the birds.