[Pg 575]

University of Kansas Publications

Museum of Natural History

---

Volume 12, No. 14, pp. 575-655, 10 figs.

  May 18, 1964  

The Breeding Birds of Kansas

BY






RICHARD F. JOHNSTON

University of Kansas

Lawrence

1964

[Pg 576]

University of Kansas Publications, Museum of Natural History



Editors: E. Raymond Hall, Chairman, Henry S. Fitch,

Theodore H. Eaton, Jr.

Volume 12, No. 14, pp. 575-655, 10 figs.



Published May 18, 1964









University of Kansas

Lawrence, Kansas

PRINTED BY

HARRY (BUD) TIMBERLAKE, STATE PRINTER

TOPEKA, KANSAS

1964



30-1476

[Pg 577]

The breeding avifauna of Kansas has received intermittent attention
from zoologists for about 75 years. Summary statements, usually
concerning all birds of the state, have been published by Goss (1891),
Long (1940), Goodrich (1941), Tordoff (1956) and Johnston (1960). All
but the first dealt with the breeding birds chiefly in passing, and
none was concerned primarily with habitat distributions and temporal
characteristics of Kansan birds. The present work treats mainly
certain temporal relationships of breeding birds in Kansas, but also
geographic distribution, habitat preferences, and zoogeographic
relationships to the extent necessary for a useful discussion of
temporal breeding phenomena.

Information on breeding of some of the 176 species of birds known to
breed in Kansas is relatively good, on a few is almost non-existent,
and on most is variously incomplete. It is nevertheless possible to
make meaningful statements about many aspects of the breeding biology
and distribution of most species of Kansan birds;
[Pg 578]
we can take stock, as it were, of available information and assess the
outstanding avenues of profitable future work. In the accounts of species
below, the information given is for the species as it occurs in Kansas,
unless it is otherwise stated. For the various subsections analyzing
biology and distribution, only information taken in Kansas is used,
and for this reason the analyses are made on about half the species
breeding in the state. An enormous amount of observational effort has
been expended by several dozen people in order that suitable data
about breeding birds of Kansas be available; all persons who have
contributed in any way are listed in the section on acknowledgments,
following the accounts of species.

Kansas has been described topographically, climatically, and otherwise
ecologically many times in the recent past; the reader is referred to
the excellent account by Cockrum (1952), which treats these matters
from the viewpoint of a zoologist. For present purposes it will
suffice to mention the following characteristics of Kansas as a place
lived in by birds.

Topographically, Kansas is an inclined plane having an elevation of
about 4100 feet in the northwest and about 700 feet in the southeast.
West of approximately 97° W longitude, the topography is gently
rolling, low hills or flat plain; to the east the Flint Hills extend
in a nearly north to south direction, and to the east of these heavily
weathered, grassy hills is a lower-lying but more heavily dissected
country, hills of which show no great differences in elevation from
surrounding flatland.

The vegetation of eastern Kansas comingles with that of the western
edge of the North American deciduous forest; a mosaic of true forest,
woodland remnants, and tall-grass prairie occupies this area east of
the Flint Hills. From these hills west the prairie grassland today has
riparian woodland along watercourses; the prairie is composed of
proportionally more and more short-grass elements to the west and
tall-grass elements to the east.

Climate has a dominating influence on the vegetational elements
sketched above. Mean annual rainfall is 20 inches or less in western
sectors and increases to about 40 inches in the extreme eastern border
areas. Mean monthly temperatures run from 25°F. or 30°F. in winter to
80°F. or 90°F. in summer. The northwestern edges of Caribbean Gulf
warm air masses regularly reach northward only to the vicinity of
Doniphan County, in northeastern Kansas, and extend southwestward into
west-central Oklahoma; these wet frontal systems are usually
dissipated along the line indicated by masses of
[Pg 579]
arctic air, sometimes in spectacular fashion. The regular recurrence of
warm gulf air is responsible for the characteristically high relative
humidity in summer over eastern Kansas and it has an ameliorating effect
on winter climate in this region. Almost immediately to the north in
Nebraska and to the west in the high plains, summers are dryer and
winters are notably more severe. The breeding distributions of some
species of birds fairly closely approximate the distribution of these
warm air masses; these examples are noted where appropriate below.

Birds breeding in Kansas are taxonomically, ecologically, and
distributionally diverse. Such diversity is to be expected, in view of
the mid-continental position of the State. Characteristics of
insularity, owing to barriers to dispersal and movement, tend to be
lacking in the makeup of the avifauna here. The State is not, of
course, uniformly inhabited by all 176 species (Table 1) of breeding
birds; most species vary in numbers from one place to another, and
some are restricted to a fraction of the State. Variations in numbers
and in absolute occurrence are chiefly a reflection of restriction or
absence of certain plant formations, which is to say habitats; the
analysis to follow is thus organized mainly around an examination of
gross habitat-types and the birds found in them in Kansas.

Four major habitat-types can be seen in looking at the distribution of
the breeding avifauna of Kansas. These are woodland, grassland,
limnic, and xeric scrub plant formations. A little more than half the
breeding birds of Kansas live in woodland habitats, about one-fifth in
limnic habitats, about one-eighth in grassland habitats, and less than
two per cent in scrub habitats; this leaves some 6.4 per cent of the
breeding avifauna unanalyzed (Table 2).

One hundred one species of Kansan birds are woodland species (tables 1
and 2). The analysis of Udvardy (1958) showed woodland birds to be the
largest single avifaunal element in North America, with 38 per cent of
North American birds relegated to it. It is likewise the largest
element in the Kansan avifauna, representing 58 per cent of Kansan
[Pg 582]
birds. Although woodland makes up a relatively small fraction of the
vegetational complexes in Kansas, a large number of habitats exist in
what woodland is present. An even larger number of possible woodland
habitats is clearly missing, however, because the 101 Kansan species
actually represent but 44 per cent of all woodland birds in North
America, according to Udvardy's analysis. Broad-leaved, deciduous
woodlands in Kansas are of restricted horizontal and vertical
stratification. More complex deciduous forest associations and all
coniferous forest associations are absent from the State.

Using Mayr's (1946) breakdown of geographical origin of the North
American bird fauna, about 53 per cent of the woodland passerine birds
in Kansas are of "North American" origin, 22 per cent are of
"Eurasian" origin, and 14 per cent are of "South American" origin
(Table 3). These figures for Kansas are commensurate with those found
for other geographic districts at the same latitude in North America
(Mayr, 1946:28). Other characteristics of woodland birds are
summarized in tables 4 and 5.

Of Kansan birds, 36 species (20 per cent) prefer limnic habitats
(Table 1). Udvardy found this group to represent 15 per cent of the
North American avifauna. Kansas is not notably satisfactory for limnic
species, and only 38 per cent of the total North American limnic
avifauna is present in the State.

Thirty-one species of limnic birds belong to families that Mayr (1946)
considered to be unanalyzable as to their geographic origin; of the
[Pg 583]
five remaining species, all seem to be of North American origin.
Other characteristics of limnic birds are summarized in tables 4 and 5.

Twenty-three species of our total can be called grassland species
(Table 1). The subtotal is less than one-fifth of the Kansan avifauna,
but it represents 72 per cent of the grassland birds of North America;
grassland habitats abound in Kansas. Only 5.3 per cent of all North
American birds are grassland species (Udvardy, 1958).

About 56 per cent of these birds are of North American stocks, nine
per cent of Eurasian stocks, and three per cent of South American
stocks. The percentage of North American species is the greatest for
any habitat group here considered. Other characteristics of grassland
birds are summarized in tables 4 and 5.

Three species of Kansan birds can be placed in this category (Table 1).
This is less than one per cent of the North American avifauna, two
per cent of the Kansan avifauna, and ten per cent of the birds of
xeric scrub habitats in North America. The three species are
considered to be of North American origin.

Eleven species of Kansan birds could not be assigned to any of the
[Pg 584]
habitat-types mentioned above. The total represents two per cent of
the North American avifauna, six per cent of the birds of Kansas, and
55 per cent of the species reckoned by Udvardy (loc. cit.) to be
unanalyzable. Fifty-five per cent is a large fraction, but only to be
expected: species are considered unanalyzable if they show a broad,
indiscriminate use of more than one habitat-type, and such birds tend
to be widely distributed.

The distributional limits of a species are useful in indicating
certain of its adaptive capacities and implying maintenance of or
shifts in characteristics of habitats. Although it is generally an
oversimplification to ignore abundance when treating of distribution,
the present remarks of necessity do not pertain to abundance.

Thirty-one species (tables 6 and 7) reach the western limits of their
distribution somewhere in Kansas. Most of these limits are in eastern
Kansas, and coincide with the gradual disappearance of the eastern
deciduous forest formation. Twenty-nine species are woodland birds,
and few of these seem to find satisfactory conditions in the riparian
woods extending out through western Kansas. The Wood Thrush is the one
woodland species that has been found nesting in the west (Decatur
County; Wolfe, 1961). Descriptively, therefore, the dominant reason
for the existence of distributional limits in at least 28 of these
birds is the lack of suitable woodland in western Kansas; these 28 are
the largest single group reaching distributional limits in the State.
Many other eastern woodland birds occur in western Kansas along
riparian woodlands, as is mentioned below.

Two species showing western limits in Kansas are characteristic of
grassland habitats; the Eastern Meadowlark seems to disappear with
absence of moist or bottomland prairie grassland and the Henslow
Sparrow may be limited westerly by disappearance of tall-grass
prairie.

The Short-billed Marsh Wren, a marginal limnic species, reaches its
southwesterly mid-continental breeding limits in northeastern
[Pg 586]
Kansas. The species breeds in Kansas in two or three years of each ten, in
summers having unusually high humidity.

Fourteen species (tables 6 and 7) reach their northern distributional
limits in Kansas. Eight of these are birds of woodland habitats, but
of these only the Carolina Chickadee is a species of the eastern
deciduous woodlands; the other seven live in less mesic woodland.
Three of these species (Chuck-will's-Widow, Scissor-tailed Flycatcher
and Painted Bunting) have breeding ranges that suggest the
northwesterly occurrences of summer humid warm air masses ("gulf
fronts") and this environmental feature perhaps is of major importance
for these birds, as it is also for the vegetational substratum in
which the birds live.

The Lesser Prairie Chicken and the Cassin Sparrow are the two birds of
grasslands that are limited northerly in Kansas. Xeric, sandy
grassland is chiefly limited to the southwestern quarter of Kansas,
and this limitation is perhaps of major significance to these two
species. The Scaled Quail and Roadrunner tend to drop out as the xeric
"desert scrub" conditions of the southwest drop out in Kansas.

Eleven species (tables 6 and 7) reach their eastern distributional
limits in Kansas. Six of these are woodland birds. Four of these are
members of well-known species-pairs: the Red-shafted Flicker, Bullock
Oriole, Black-headed Grosbeak, and Lazuli Bunting. Presence to the
[Pg 587]
east of complementary species has much to do with the absence of
these species in eastern Kansas. Four of the eleven are birds of
grasslands, and they drop out as the short-grass prairie is restricted
easterly.

The Rock Wren may be considered characteristic of xeric scrub in
Kansas, and it is not found to the east in the absence of such scrub.

Eight species (tables 6 and 7) reach their southern distributional
limits in Kansas. Half of these birds are of woodland habitats, and of
these four, the Black-capped Chickadee and Cedar Waxwing are chiefly
of sub-boreal distribution. The Black-capped Chickadee also finds its
niche partly pre-empted in southern Kansas by the Carolina Chickadee.

The Bobolink and Sharp-tailed Grouse are grassland species that are
seemingly adapted to cooler, dryer grassland than is found in most of
Kansas.

The Redhead, Wilson Phalarope, and Black Tern are limnic species,
perhaps limited southerly by high summer temperatures; the three
species are entirely marginal anywhere in Kansas.

Although the largest single element of the Kansan avifauna that
reaches distributional limits in Kansas is made up of birds of the
eastern deciduous forest, several species of the eastern woodlands are
present in Kansas along the east-west river drainages in riparian
woodland; the species are listed in Table 8. Twenty-one kinds are
involved if we include the Cooper Hawk, Yellow-billed Cuckoo, Orchard
Oriole, Summer Tanager, Rufous-sided Towhee, and Chipping Sparrow, all
of which breed farther to the west but are present in western Kansas
only along river drainages. This leaves 15 species of eastern
deciduous woodlands that occur west in Kansas along
[Pg 588]
riparian woodland (versus 30 species that drop out chiefly where
eastern woodland drops out). These 15 species are about one-third of all
woodland birds in western Kansas. Riparian woodland does not seem to afford
first-rate habitat for most of the eastern woodland species that do
occur; breeding density seems to be much lower than in well-situated
eastern woodland.

The importance of these linear woodlands as avenues for gene-flow
between eastern and western populations, especially of species-pairs
(grosbeaks, flickers, orioles, and buntings), is obviously great.
Likewise significant is the existence of these alleys for dispersal
from the west of certain species (for instance, the Black-billed
Magpie and the Scrub Jay) into new but potentially suitable areas.

An examination of breeding seasons or schedules is properly undertaken
at several levels. The fundamental description of variation in
breeding schedules must itself be detailed in several ways and beyond
this there are causal factors needing examination. The material below
is a summary of the information on breeding schedules of birds in
Kansas, treated descriptively and analytically in ways now thought to
be of use.

Almost any event in actual reproductive activity has been used in the
following report; nestbuilding, egg-laying, incubation, brooding of
young, feeding of young out of the nest are considered to be of equal
status. To any such event days are added or subtracted from the date
of observation so as to yield the date when the clutch under
consideration was completed.

Such corrected dates can be used in making histograms that show the
time of primary breeding activity, or the "egg-season." All such
schedules are generalizations; data are used for a species from any
year of observation, whether 50 years ago or less than one year ago.
One advantage of such procedure is that averages and modes are thus
more nearly representative of the basic temporal adaptations of the
species involved, as is explained below.

When information on the schedule of a species from one year is lumped
with information from another year or other years, two (and ordinarily
more than two) frequency distributions are used to make one frequency
distribution. The great advantage here is that the frequency
distribution composed of two or more frequency distributions is more
stable than any one of its components. Second, the peak of the season,
the mode of egg-laying, is represented more[Pg 589] broadly than it would
have been for any one year alone. Third, the extremes of breeding
activity are fairly shown as of minute frequency and thus of limited
importance, which would not be true if just one year were graphed. All
these considerations combine to support the idea that general schedules
in fact represent the basic temporal adaptations of a
species much better than schedules for one year only.

In the chronology of breeding seasons of birds, there are three basic
variables: time at which seasons begin, time at which seasons end, and
time in which the major breeding effort occurs. These variables have
been examined in one population through time (Lack, 1947; Snow, 1955;
Johnston, 1956), in several populations of many species over wide
geographic ranges (Baker, 1938; Moreau, 1950; Davis, 1953), and in
several populations of one species (Lack, loc. cit.; Paynter, 1954;
Johnston, 1954). The analysis below is concerned with breeding of many
kinds of birds of an arbitrarily defined area and with the influence
of certain ecologic and zoogeographic factors on the breeding seasons
for those several species.

The Influence of Seasonal Status.—Here we are interested in whether a
species is broadly resident or migrant in Kansas; 70 species are
available for analysis.

Twenty-four species, furnishing 875 records of breeding, are here
considered to be resident birds in northeastern Kansas. These species
are Cooper Hawk, Red-tailed Hawk, Prairie Chicken, Bobwhite, Rock
Dove, Great Horned Owl, Red-bellied Woodpecker, Hairy Woodpecker,
Downy Woodpecker, Horned Lark, Blue Jay, Common Crow, Black-billed
Magpie, Black-capped Chickadee, Tufted Titmouse, Carolina Wren, Bewick
Wren, Mockingbird, Eastern Bluebird, Loggerhead Shrike, Starling,
House Sparrow, Eastern Meadowlark, and Cardinal. The distribution of
completed clutches (Fig. 1) runs from mid-January to mid-September,
with a modal period in the first third of May. Conspicuous breeding
activity occurs from mid-April to the first third of June.

Forty-six species, furnishing 2,522 records of breeding, are
considered to be migrant in northeastern Kansas. These species are
Great Blue Heron, Green Heron, Swainson Hawk, American Coot,[Pg 590]
Killdeer, Upland Plover, American Avocet, Least Tern, Yellow-billed
Cuckoo, Black-billed Cuckoo, Burrowing Owl, Common Nighthawk, Chimney
Swift, Red-headed Woodpecker, Eastern Kingbird, Western Kingbird,
Scissor-tailed Flycatcher, Great Crested Flycatcher, Eastern Phoebe,
Eastern Wood Pewee, Bank Swallow, Rough-winged Swallow, Barn Swallow,
Purple Martin, Brown Thrasher, Catbird, House Wren, Robin, Wood
Thrush, Blue-gray Gnatcatcher, Bell Vireo, Warbling Vireo,
Prothonotary Warbler, Yellow Warbler, Chat, Western Meadowlark,
Red-winged Blackbird, Orchard Oriole, Baltimore Oriole, Common
Grackle, Black-headed Grosbeak, Indigo Bunting, Dickcissel, Lark
Sparrow, and Field Sparrow. The distribution of completed clutches
runs from mid-March to the first third of September, with a modal
period of egg-laying in the first third of June (Fig. 1). Conspicuous
breeding activity occurs from the first third of May to the last third
of June.

The Influence of Dominant Foraging Adaptation.—Five categories here
considered reflect broad foraging adaptation: woodland species, taking
invertebrate foods in the breeding season from woody vegetation or the
soil within wooded habitats; grassland species, taking invertebrate
foods in the breeding season from within grassland situations; limnic
species, foraging within marshy or aquatic habitats; aerial species,
foraging on aerial arthropods; raptors, feeding on vertebrates or
large insects.

Six species, furnishing 174 records of breeding, are here considered,
as follows: Cooper Hawk, Red-tailed Hawk, Swainson Hawk, Great Horned
Owl, Burrowing Owl, and Loggerhead Shrike. The distribution of
clutches (Fig. 1) runs from mid-January to the first third of July and
is bimodal. One period of egg-laying occurs in mid-February and a
second in the last third of April. Such a distribution indicates that
two basically independent groups of birds are being considered. The
first peak of laying reflects activities of the large raptors, and the
second peak is that of the insectivorous Burrowing Owl and Loggerhead
Shrike. The peak for these two birds is most nearly coincident with
that for grassland species, a category to which the Burrowing Owl
might well be relegated.

[Pg 591]

Fig. 1.—Histograms representing breeding schedules
of ten categories of Kansan birds. Heights of columns indicate
percentage of total of clutches of eggs, and widths indicate ten-day
intervals of time, with the 5th, 15th, and 25th of each month as
medians. The occurrences of monthly means of temperature and
precipitation are indicated at the bottom of the figure.

Six species, the Great Blue Heron, Green Heron, American Coot,
American Avocet, Least Tern and Red-winged Blackbird, furnish
[Pg 592]
264 records of breeding. The distribution of clutches (Fig. 1) runs
from mid-March to the last third of July and is bimodal. This is
another heterogeneous assemblage of birds; the Great Blue Heron is
responsible for the first peak, in the first third of April. The other
five species, however, show fair consistency and their peak of
egg-laying almost coincides with peaks for aerial foragers, woodland
species, and migrants, considered elsewhere in this section.

Ten species, Greater Prairie Chicken, Bobwhite, Killdeer, Upland
Plover, Horned Lark, Starling, Eastern Meadowlark, Western Meadowlark,
Common Grackle, and Dickcissel, furnish 404 records of breeding
activity. The distribution of clutches (Fig. 1) runs from the first of
March to mid-September. The peak of egg-laying occurs in the first
third of May. This is coincident with the peak for resident species,
perhaps a reflection of the fact that half the species in the present
category are residents in northeastern Kansas.

In this category are included species characteristic of woodland edge.
Thirty-four species, furnishing 1,882 records of breeding, are here
treated: Yellow-billed Cuckoo, Black-billed Cuckoo, "flicker"
(includes birds thought to be relatively pure red-shafted, pure
yellow-shafted, as well as clear hybrids), Red-bellied Woodpecker,
Red-headed Woodpecker, Hairy Woodpecker, Downy Woodpecker, Blue Jay,
Black-billed Magpie, Common Crow, Black-capped Chickadee, Tufted
Titmouse, Carolina Wren, Bewick Wren, House Wren, Brown Thrasher,
Catbird, Mockingbird, Robin, Wood Thrush, Eastern Bluebird, Blue-gray
Gnatcatcher, Bell Vireo, Warbling Vireo, Prothonotary Warbler, Yellow
Warbler, Chat, Orchard Oriole, Baltimore Oriole, Cardinal,
Black-headed Grosbeak, Indigo Bunting, Lark Sparrow, and Field
Sparrow. The distribution of clutches runs from the first third of
March to mid-September (Fig. 1). The modal period for completed
clutches is the first third of June. Conspicuous breeding activity
occurs from the first third of May to mid-June. The distribution of
the season in time is almost identical with that for migrant species,
reflecting the large number of migrant species in woodland habitats in
Kansas.

Twelve species, Common Nighthawk, Chimney Swift, Eastern Kingbird,
Western Kingbird, Scissor-tailed Flycatcher, Great Crested Flycatcher,
Eastern Phoebe, Eastern Wood Pewee, Bank[Pg 593] Swallow, Rough-winged
Swallow, Barn Swallow, and Purple Martin, furnish 587 records of
breeding. The distribution of clutches (Fig. 1) extends from the last
third of March to the first third of August, and the modal date of
clutches is in the first third of June. Conspicuous breeding activity
occurs from the end of May to the end of June. The peak of nesting
essentially coincides with that characteristic of migrants.

Three categories of Mayr (1946) are of use in analyzing trends in
breeding schedules of birds in Kansas. These categories of presumed
ultimate evolutionary origin are the "Old World Element," the "North
American Element," and the "South American Element." Not always have I
agreed with Mayr's assignments of species to these categories, and
such differences are noted. There is some obvious overlap between
these categories and those discussed previously.

Eighteen species, Red-tailed Hawk, Rock Dove, Great Horned Owl, Hairy
Woodpecker, Downy Woodpecker, Black-billed Magpie, Common Crow,
Black-capped Chickadee, Tufted Titmouse, Robin, Loggerhead Shrike,
Starling, House Sparrow, Bank Swallow, Barn Swallow, and Blue-gray
Gnatcatcher, furnish 969 records of breeding (Fig. 1). Species for
which I have records but which are not here listed are the Blue Jay
and the Wood Thrush, both of which I consider to be better placed with
the North American Element. The distribution of completed clutches
runs from mid-January to the first third of August, and shows a
tendency toward bimodality. The second, smaller peak is due to the
inclusion of relatively large samples of three migrant species (Robin,
Bank Swallow, and Barn Swallow). The timing of the breeding seasons of
these three species is in every respect like that of most other
migrants; if they are removed from the present sample the bimodality
disappears, indicating an increase in homogeneity of the unit.

Twenty-six species, Greater Prairie Chicken, Bobwhite, "flicker,"
Rough-winged Swallow, Purple Martin, Blue Jay, Carolina Wren, Bewick
Wren, House Wren, Mockingbird, Catbird, Brown Thrasher, Wood Thrush,
Bell Vireo, Warbling Vireo, Prothonotary Warbler, Yellow Warbler,
Chat, Eastern Meadowlark, Western Meadowlark, Red-winged Blackbird,
Orchard Oriole, Baltimore Oriole, Common
[Pg 594]
Grackle, Lark Sparrow, and Field Sparrow, furnish 1,233 records of breeding
(Fig. 1). The distribution of completed clutches runs
from the first third of April to the first third of September. The modal
date for completion of clutches is June 1.

Twelve species, Eastern Kingbird, Western Kingbird, Scissor-tailed
Flycatcher, Great Crested Flycatcher, Yellow-bellied Flycatcher,
Traill Flycatcher, Eastern Wood Pewee, Eastern Phoebe, Cardinal,
Black-headed Grosbeak, Rose-breasted Grosbeak, and Indigo Bunting,
furnish 552 records of breeding (Fig. 1). The curve representing this
summary schedule is bimodal, wholly as a result of including the
Eastern Phoebe and the Cardinal with this sample.

In outlining the ten categories above, attention has been given to
certain similarities and differences in the frequency distributions. A
slightly more refined way of comparing the frequency distributions is
to relate them to other, seasonally variable phenomena. Figure 1 shows
the frequency distributions of egg-laying of these ten categories of
birds in terms of the regular changes in mean temperature and mean
precipitation characteristic of the environments in which these birds
live in the breeding season.

Table 9 shows that there are two basic groups of birds according to
peak of egg-laying and incidence of precipitation; raptors, birds of
Eurasian origin, resident birds, and birds of grassland habitats tend
to have their peaks of egg-laying prior to the peak of spring-summer
rains, and the other six categories tend to have their peaks of
egg-laying occur in the time of spring-summer rains. Regarding
temperature, there are four categories of birds; these are evident in
the table.

Some of the correspondences deserve comment. Residents and grassland
species both breed before the rains come and before mean temperatures
reach 70°F., and this correspondence probably results from most of the
grassland species being residents. Contrariwise, most birds of
Eurasian stocks are residents, but not all residents are of such
stocks; the two groups are discrete when mean temperature at breeding
is considered. Woodland birds, aerial foragers, and birds of South
American evolutionary stocks breed after temperatures surpass 70°F. on
the average. Almost all such species are migrants, but many migrants
have different temporal characteristics, and the categories thus are
shown to be discrete on the basis of temperature at time of breeding.
[Pg 595]
The change through spring and summer of temperature and precipitation
delineates the inception and waxing of the growing season of
vegetation and of the subsequent arthropod populations, on which most
of the birds feed in the breeding season. The temporal characteristics
of growing seasons in North America have been treated by Hopkins
(1938) and have been related to timing of breeding seasons in Song
Sparrows (Passerella melodia) of the Pacific coast of North America
(Johnston, 1954).

Evidence from a variety of sources demonstrates that timing of
breeding seasons is either broadly or specifically
genetically-determined. For some species in some situations major
environmental variables are paramount in regulating timing of
breeding, but in others the innate, regulatory "clock" is less closely
tied to conspicuous exogenous stimuli. The work by Miller (1955a,
1955b, 1960) with several species of Zonotrichia strongly indicates
that endogenous timing is most important for these birds, and there is
ecological evidence for Song Sparrows that supports the same point
(Johnston, 1954, 1956). It is, in any event, possible to treat
breeding schedules as species-specific characters, for any one
geographic area.

In an attempt to relate a breeding schedule to previous ancestral
modes, that is by extension to phylogeny, it is necessary to know how
often ancestral adaptations can persist in the face of necessity to
adapt to present environmental conditions. It is necessary to know how
conservative or how immediately plastic breeding schedules can be. The
disadvantage of using available information about configurations of
breeding seasons (as shown in Figs. 3 to 9) is that it is extremely
difficult to compare visually at one time more than six or eight
histograms as to the trenchant similarities and differences regarding
times of inception and cessation of breeding, and time of peak
egg-laying. It is possible, however, to reduce these three variables
to one variable (as described below), which allows the necessary
comparisons to be made more easily; this variable may be called the
breeding index.

The chronological year is broken roughly into ten-day intervals
numbered 1 to 36. The histogram describing the temporal occurrence of
the breeding season of a species in our area usually will lie within
intervals 7 to 25. The modal date for completion of clutches is given
a value corresponding to the number of ten-day[Pg 596] intervals beyond
interval 7 (March 1-10); this describes the modal variable. The date
of completion of 83 per cent of all clutches is given a value
corresponding to the number of ten-day intervals it lies from interval
11 (April 11-20); this describes the 83 per cent variable (and is a
measure of the length of the season in terms of its inception). The
breeding index can then be calculated as follows:

This is obviously an arbitrary scheme to gain a simple measure of
beginning, peak, and end of a breeding season. Other schemes could be
devised whereby different absolute values would be involved, but the
relative nature of the results would be preserved. The values under
the present system for 73 species of Kansan birds run from -5 to +22;
early modal dates and cessation to breeding give low values, late
dates high values.

Within this framework there are other, presumably subordinate, factors
that influence the values of breeding indices, as follows:

1. Migratory habit. Any migrant tends to arrive on breeding grounds
relatively late, hence migrants ordinarily have higher index values
than do residents.

2. Colonial breeding. The strong synchrony of colonially-breeding
species tends to move the modal egg-date toward the time of inception
of breeding; as a result colonially-breeding species probably have
lower index values than they would have if not colonial.

3. Single-broodedness. Species having only one brood per season tend
to have shorter seasons than double-brooded species, and their index
values tend to be lower than those of double-brooded species.

Migratory habit unquestionably has considerable influence on index
values in some species. It is not, however, as important as other
matters, such as the condition of the food substratum or sensitivity
of the pituitary-gonadal mechanism, in determining timing and mode of
breeding activity. The schedule of the Purple Martin is the extreme
example showing that time of spring arrival on breeding grounds is not
necessarily related to time of inception of breeding. It should be
emphasized that the factors leading to northward migratory movement
may be involved in timing of the annual gonadal and reproductive
cycle.

Figure 2 presents a graphic summary of values of breeding
[Pg 597]
indices for many groups of Kansan birds. The values for species of a
given family have been linked by a horizontal line. The length of this
line is proportional to the degree to which the index values for the
species concerned resemble one another. Note that the plottings for the
Picidae, Corvidae, Turdidae, Tyrannidae, and Icteridae each contain
one point that is well-removed from a cluster of points. This can be
interpreted as a measure of the frequency of adaptive plasticity
versus adaptive conservatism; five of the 24 plottings show a plastic
character, 19 a conservative. There are 26 plottings that show
temporal consistency, all of which may be taken as evidence of
adaptive (or relictual) conservatism of the species in question.

[Pg 598]

Fig. 2.—Breeding indices for Kansan birds. Vertical
hash-marks indicate the value of breeding index for a given species;
horizontal lines show the range of values of breeding index for
families and orders.

Such patterns of breeding chronology support the idea that seasonal
response to the necessities of breeding is conservative more often
than plastic. Most students of breeding schedules believe that since
these are highly adaptive, they must also be capable of flexibility to
meet variable environments within the range of the species. Such
thinking receives support when different geographic localities are
considered for one species (Johnston, 1954), or when specific features
of a special environment are considered (see Miller, 1960; Johnston,
1956).

Yet, if one, relatively restricted locality is considered, as in the
present study, evidence of a conservative characteristic in breeding
schedules can be detected. This conservatism may result from the
historic genetic "burden" of the species; that is to say, previous
adaptive peaks may in part be evident in the matrix of contemporary
adaptation. Adaptive relicts of morphological nature have been many
times documented, but characteristics associated with seasonality and
timing schedules have not.

In any event, genetic relationships are evident in the configuration
of breeding seasons of many species here treated. Thus, any
consideration of variation in breeding schedules must be sensitive to
the limits, whether broad or restricting, that the heritage of a
species sets on its present chronological adaptation.

Regulation of breeding schedules in birds always involves some
exogenous, environmental timing or triggering mechanism. Broad limits
to functional reproductive activity seem to be set by the
photoperiod—neuroendocrine system. This basic, predominately
extra-equatorial, regulator can be ignored by temperate-zone species
only if they possess chronological adaptation to special, aperiodic
environmental conditions, as does the Red Crossbill (Loxia
curvirostra; see McCabe and McCabe, 1933; H. B. Tordoff, ms.), for
which the chief consideration seems to be availability of conifer
seeds. Environmental phonomena otherwise known to trigger breeding
activity include rainfall (Davis, 1953; Williamson, 1956), presence of
suitable nesting material (Marshall and Disney, 1957; Lehrman, 1958),
temperature (Nice, 1937), and presence of a mate (Lehrman, Brody, and
Wortis, 1961). Such regulators, or environmental oscillators, are the
"phasing factors" of the physiologic clock that dictate the temporal
occurrence of primary reproductive activity.

[Pg 599]
None of the regulators mentioned above has been specifically
investigated for any Kansan bird, but it is reasonable to suppose
that, in these temperate-zone species, the photoperiod is the most
important general phasing factor in seasonal breeding. Although
gonadal response and seasonal restriction of breeding are set by
the photoperiod, specific temporal relationships are dictated by more
immediate environmental variables.

Table 9, as already noted, shows the gross relationships between
certain groups of birds, certain arbitrary indicators of seasonal
temperature-humidity conditions bearing significantly on the growing
season, and occurrence in time of peak of egg-laying by the birds
involved. Some species and groups of Kansan birds breed chiefly under
cool-dry environmental conditions, and some under warm-wet
environmental conditions. Within each of these categories some
variation occurs. Thus, raptors and boreally-adapted species (the
Eurasian zoogeographic element) breed under cool conditions prior to
rains, and residents and grassland species breed under slightly warmer
conditions prior to rains; limnic species, species derived from North
American evolutionary stocks, and migrants tend to breed in the cooler
segment of the warm-wet period, and woodland birds, aerial foragers,
and species derived from South American evolutionary stocks tend to
breed in the warmer segment of the warm-wet period.

So much, then, for relationships between birds and their environments
[Pg 600]
at a descriptive level. It would be useful at this point to examine
how environmental variables relate to timing of breeding. Certain
independent lines of investigation indicate that birds have a
well-developed internal timing device; most convincing is the work of
Schmidt-Koenig (1960) and the others who have shown that the
endogenous clock of birds can be shifted in its periodicity forward or
backward in time. This and much other evidence (see Brown, 1960)
indicate that many fundamental periodic regulators are extrinsic to
the animal; it is thus permissible for present purposes to consider
any expression of variation in timing as dependent on environmental
oscillators. It is not hereby meant to ignore the fact that
differential responses to dominant environmental variables occur
within a species, indicating endogenous control over timing of
breeding. The work by Miller (1960:518) with three populations of the
White-crowned Sparrow, revealing innately different responses to
vernal photoperiodic increase, is especially important in this regard.
For the moment, however, we may consider exogenous controls only.

Any exogenous control, or environmental variable, can be looked on
simply as a timing oscillator. Such variables show regular or
irregular periodic activity, and the independent actions as a whole
result in the more-or-less variable annual schedule of breeding for
any species at any one place. It would seem that some oscillators are
linked to one another, but there is a real question concerning the
over-all degree to which linkage is present. It is significant that
frequency distributions of breeding activity of various species and
groups of birds take on the shape of a skewed normal curve. The more
information is added to such distributions, the more nearly they
approach being wholly normal, with irregularities tending to
disappear. This kind of response itself is evidence that most of the
variables influencing the distribution are not mutually linked.

This conclusion is warranted if we examine what would happen to
frequency distributions if the variables or oscillators regulating
timing were linked. The frequency distribution of breeding activity in
birds is described by a nonlinear curve (a normal distribution is
nonlinear). Let us assume that each of the environmental variables is
a nonlinear oscillator, as is probable. A set of nonlinear oscillators
mutually entrained or coupled and operating with reference to a given
phenomenon would result in that phenomenon being described by a
frequency distribution much more stable than if it were regulated by
any one oscillator alone. However, the frequency distribution of a set
[Pg 601]
of coupled nonlinear oscillators is non-normal (Wiener, 1958).

We do not obtain such distributions in describing breeding activity,
so we may say that the oscillators regulating such activity are not
coupled. Present distribution, habitat preference, residency status,
foraging adaptation, previous zoogeographic history, and relicts of
ancestral adaptation, all bear on the character of the breeding
schedule of any bird species. The emphasis above on multiple
regulation of breeding schedules conceivably reflects the true
picture, but any such emphasis is made at the expense of taking one
factor as basic, or reducing the many to one, in order to manufacture
simplicity.

In each account below information is given concerning status, habitat,
geographic distribution, seasonal occurrence, schedule of egg-laying,
number of eggs laid, and sites of nests, as these pertain to Kansas,
unless otherwise stated. The ways in which some of these points were
elucidated are as follows.

1.—Breeding schedule. Frequency distributions of egg-laying in time
are calculated on the basis of dates of completed clutches, as
described earlier (p. 588). Any event in the series of actions of
nesting—nestbuilding, egg-laying, incubation, brooding, feeding young
out of nests—can be manipulated by adding or subtracting days to or
from the date of record to yield the probable date of completion of
the clutch. The resulting data are grouped into class intervals of ten
days. Extreme dates here given for egg-laying may be as much as nine
days off in accuracy, but the error does not often exceed five days.
Extreme dates indicated here may be taken as actual or predicted
extremes. The raw data used are on file at the Museum of Natural
History and are available for use by any qualified individual.

2.—Dates of occurrence. First and last annual occurrences in the
State for migrant species are indicated by both a range of dates and a
median date. Twenty to 30 dates of first observation in spring are
available for most of the common species, and 10 to 20 dates of last
observation in autumn are at hand for such species. The median dates,
earlier than and subsequent to which an equal number of observations
are available, are reliable indicators of the dates on which a species
is likely to be seen first in the State in an average year.

3.—Clutch-size. Information on number of eggs is given for each
species according to the mode, followed by the mean, the range, and
the size of the sample.

[Pg 602]
4.—Distribution in Kansas. Information on distribution in the
breeding season within the borders of Kansas is given in accounts
below chiefly by reference to one or more counties of the State.
Location of counties can be made by referring to Figure 10.

Pied-billed Grebe: Podilymbus podiceps podiceps (Linnaeus).—This is
a common but local summer resident, in and on ponds, marshes, streams,
ditches, and lakes. The species can be seen in the State at any time,
but usually arrives in the period March 1 to April 13 (the median is
March 21), and departs southward in the period October 13 to November
18 (the median is October 24).

Breeding schedule.—Nineteen records of breeding span the period May
1 to June 30; the modal date for egg-laying is May 15.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is 4 to 10 eggs.

Nests are floating masses of marsh vegetation (cattail, smartweed,
duckweed, filamentous green algae, and the like), kept green on top by
addition of fresh material, in or at the edge of emergent marsh
vegetation.

Double-crested Cormorant: Phalacrocorax auritus auritus
(Lesson).—This is a transient, but has been found nesting on one
occasion in Barton County (Tordoff, 1956:311).

Breeding schedule.—Eggs were laid in July and August in the one
known nesting effort.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is 2 to 4 eggs (Davie, 1898).

Great Blue Heron: Ardea herodias Linnaeus.—This common summer
resident nests in tall trees along rivers, streams, and marshes. The
sector of greatest abundance is the Flint Hills. A. h. herodias
Linnaeus occurs in extreme northeastern Kansas, A. h. wardi Ridgway
breeds in southeastern Kansas, and A. h. treganzai Court breeds in
western Kansas; specimens showing intermediate morphology have been
taken from the central part of the State. Occurrence in time,
exclusive of the few that overwinter in Kansas, is shown in Table 10.

Breeding schedule.—Seventy-seven records of breeding span the
period March 1 to April 30 (Fig. 3); the modal date of egg-laying is
April 5.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is 4 eggs (4.4, 3-6; 36).

Nests are placed in crotches of sycamore, cottonwood, elm, hackberry, oak,
and walnut, from 30 to 60 feet high; the average height is about 40 feet.

[Pg 603]
Green Heron: Butorides virescens virescens (Linnaeus).—This is a
common summer resident about streams, lakes, and marshes throughout
the State. Some characteristics of the temporal occurrence of this
species are indicated in Table 10.

Breeding schedule.—Twenty-eight records of breeding span the period
April 21 to June 20 (Fig. 3); the modal date of completion of clutches
is May 5.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is 3 eggs (3.1, 3-5; 17).

Nests are placed about 10 feet high (two to 35 feet) in willow,
cottonwood, elm, and the like.

Little Blue Heron: Florida caerulea caerulea (Linnaeus).—This is
chiefly a postbreeding summer visitant, but there is one record of
breeding in Finney County (Tordoff, 1956:312).

Breeding schedule.—There is no information on breeding schedule in
Kansas or in adjacent areas.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is 2 to 4 eggs (Davie, 1898).

Nests are placed in trees and bushes at various heights above the
ground.

Common Egret: Casmerodius albus egretta (Gmelin).—This is a
postbreeding summer visitant, but has been found nesting once in
Cowley County (Johnston, 1960:10). Occurrence in time is listed in
Table 10.

Breeding schedule.—There is no information on breeding schedule in
Kansas.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is 2 to 4 eggs (Davie, 1898).

Nests are placed in trees, usually above 20 feet in height; the one
instance of nesting in the State was within a colony of Great Blue
Herons.

Snowy Egret: Leucophoyx thula thula (Molina).—This postbreeding
summer visitant has been found nesting once in Finney County (Tordoff,
1956:312).

Breeding schedule.—There is no information on breeding schedule in
the State.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is 2 to 5 eggs (Davie, 1898).

Nests in Kansas are placed among those of Great Blue Herons.

Black-crowned Night Heron: Nycticorax nycticorax hoactli
(Gmelin).—This is a locally common summer resident around marshes and
riparian habitats. Characteristics of the occurrence of the species in
time are given in Table 10.

Breeding schedule.—Eggs are laid in the period May 1 to August 10.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is about 4 eggs.

Nests are placed at medium elevations in riparian trees, in Kansas
chiefly cottonwood, or in beds of emergent marsh vegetation.

Yellow-crowned Night Heron: Nyctanassa violacea violacea
(Linnaeus).—This is a local summer resident in riparian habitats,
chiefly in southeastern Kansas. Specimens taken in the breeding season
and records of nesting come from Meade, Stafford, Doniphan, Douglas,
Greenwood, Woodson, Labette, and Cherokee counties. Characteristics of
[Pg 604]
occurrence in time in Kansas are shown in Table 10. Breeding
schedule.—Eggs are laid in May and June.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is about 4 eggs.

Nests are placed in riparian trees.

Least Bittern: Ixobrychus exilis exilis (Gmelin).—This is a local
summer resident in marshland. Characteristics of its occurrence in
time are indicated in Table 10.

Breeding schedule.—Eleven records of breeding span the period May
21 to July 20; the modal date of egg-laying seems to be in the first
week of June.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is about 4 eggs.

Nests are placed in dense emergent vegetation a few inches to a foot
above the surface of the water.

American Bittern: Botaurus lentiginosus (Rackett).—This is a local
summer resident in marshes and heavy grassland. The species occurs
temporally according to characteristics as listed in Table 10.

Breeding schedule.—Eggs are laid in May and probably in June.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is 3 or 4 eggs.

Nests are placed on the ground in heavy cover.

White-faced Ibis: Plegadis chihi (Vieillot).—This is a local summer
resident in marshland; actual records of breeding come only from
Barton County (Nossaman, 1952:7; Zuvanich, 1963; M. Schwilling,
personal communication, July, 1962). The species has been recorded in
the State from April 17 to October 6.

Breeding schedule.—Twenty-five breeding records are for June and
early July.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is about 4 eggs (3.9, 3-4; 24).

Nests are placed in emergent marsh vegetation near the surface of the
water, in Barton County in extensive cattail beds harboring also
Black-crowned Night Herons.

Mallard: Anas platyrhynchos platyrhynchos Linnaeus.—This is a local
summer resident around marshes. The time of greatest abundance is
October to April, but most birds move north for breeding.

Breeding schedule.—Fifteen records of breeding span the period
April 1 to June 10; the modal date of egg-laying is in the first ten
days of May.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size varies widely; first clutches are of
about 12 eggs. Brood sizes vary from 3 to 12 individuals in Kansas.

Nests are placed on the ground surface, in pasture grasses, marsh
grasses, cattail, sedge, and smartweed.

Pintail: Anas acuta Linnaeus.—This is a local summer resident in
marshland. The time of greatest abundance is from September to May,
but most birds move north for breeding.

Breeding schedule.—Eleven records of breeding span the period April
21 to June 10; the peak of egg-laying seems to be in the period May 1
to 10.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is around 10 eggs. Brood sizes vary
from 3 to 8 individuals in Kansas.

Nests are placed on the ground surface, in cover of marsh grass,
[Pg 605]cattail, or sedge.

Blue-winged Teal: Anas discors discors
Linnaeus.—This summer resident is locally common around marshes and
ponds. The species arrives in spring in the period March 9 to April 5
(the median is March 23); birds are last seen sometime between October
7 and November 26 (the median is October 20).

Breeding schedule.—Twenty-two records of breeding span the period
May 1 to May 30; the peak of egg-laying is around May 15. It is
doubtful that the present data indicate the full extent of the
egg-season in this duck.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is 8 to 12 eggs.

Nests are placed on the ground surface, in cover of grasses, cattail
and sedges.

Shoveler: Anas clypeata Linnaeus.—This is an irregular and local
summer resident, around marshes. Most individuals seen in the State
are passage migrants. Breeding records are from Barton and Finney
counties.

Breeding schedule.—Seasonal limits are unknown for the Shoveler in
Kansas.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is about 8 eggs (Davie, 1898).

Nests are placed on the ground surface in cover of marsh vegetation.

Wood Duck: Aix sponsa (Linnaeus).—This is an uncommon summer
resident around wooded streams and ponds in eastern Kansas. Nesting
records and specimens taken in the breeding season come from east of
stations in Pottawatomie, Coffey, and Woodson counties. Most nesting
records at present come from the Marais des Cygnes Wildlife Refuge,
Linn County. The species is present in the State from March 5 to
December 8.

Breeding schedule.—Eleven records of breeding span the period March
21 to May 10; the peak of egg-laying is probably in mid-April. The
present data are inadequate for showing the full span of the breeding
season.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is around 15 eggs, varying from 10 to
23 in the sample at hand.

Nests are placed in crevices and hollows in trees near water, 10 to 70
feet high.

Redhead: Aythya americana (Eyton).—This duck nested at Cheyenne
Bottoms, Barton County, 1962: 9 eggs found May 31 (M. Schwilling);
also reported to have nested at Cheyenne Bottoms about 1928 (Tordoff,
1956:316).

Canvasback: Aythya valisineria (Wilson).—This duck nested at
Cheyenne Bottoms, Barton County, 1962: 14 eggs found June 20 (M.
Schwilling).

Ruddy Duck: Oxyura jamaicensis rubida (Wilson).—This is a local
summer resident in marshland; numbers seem generally higher in western
than in eastern Kansas. The season of greatest abundance is March
through November, but numbers are conspicuously reduced in midsummer.

Breeding schedule.—Eggs are known to be laid in May and June.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is about 10 eggs (Davie, 1898).

Nests are placed near the edge of water, either in or on emergent
marsh vegetation; nests of other marshland birds, such as coots, are
sometimes appropriated (Davie, 1898).

Turkey Vulture: Cathartes aura teter Friedmann.—This summer
resident is common throughout Kansas. Occurrence in time is indicated
in Table 11.

Breeding schedule.—Fifteen records of breeding span the period
[Pg 606]
April 21 to June 10; earlier records will doubtless be found, to
judge from the frequency distribution of the present sample. The peak
of egg-laying is perhaps around May 1.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is 2 eggs (1.8, 1-2; 12).

Nests are placed in holes and crevices in trees and cliffs, on rocky
ledges, and the like.

[Pg 607]

Fig. 3.—Histograms representing breeding schedules of
two herons, the Red-tailed Hawk, Bobwhite, and two shore birds in
Kansas. See legend to Figure 1 for explanation of histograms.

Black Vulture: Coragyps atratus (Meyer).—This is possibly a summer
resident in the southeastern sector of Kansas. There is one nesting
record, for Labette County (Goss, 1891:245).

Breeding schedule.—There are no data for this species in Kansas.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is 2 eggs (Davie, 1898).

Nests are placed in hollows (logs, stumps, etc.) on the ground
surface.

Swallow-tailed Kite: Elanoides forficatus forficatus
(Linnaeus).—This kite was formerly a summer resident in eastern
Kansas; it no longer occurs as a breeding species.

Breeding schedule.—In Kansas the season seemed to occur relatively
late in the year for a raptor; eggs were laid in May, so far as is
known.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is about 2 eggs (Davie, 1898).

Nests are placed in tops of trees.

Mississippi Kite: Ictinia misisippiensis (Wilson).—This is a common
summer resident in southern Kansas, west to Morton County. Specimens
taken in the breeding season and records of nesting come from south of
stations in Grant, Barton, Harvey, and Douglas counties; the present
center of abundance is in Meade, Clark, Comanche, Barber, and Harper
counties.

Breeding schedule.—Seven records of breeding span the period April
20 to June 10; the peak of egg-laying seems to be in the first week of
May.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is 2 eggs.

Nests are placed about 35 feet high (from 25 to 50 feet) in
cottonwood, willow, elm, black locust, and the like.

Sharp-shinned Hawk: Accipiter striatus velox (Wilson).—This rare
summer resident apparently occurs only in the eastern part. The two
nesting records are from Cloud and Pottawatomie counties.

Breeding schedule.—The information at hand suggests the birds lay
in April and May.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is about 4 eggs (Davie, 1898).

Nests are placed 20 or more feet high in coniferous or deciduous
trees.

Cooper Hawk: Accipiter cooperii (Bonaparte).—This is an uncommon
resident. Specimens taken in the breeding season and actual records of
nesting come from east of stations in Cloud, Anderson, and Montgomery
counties.

Breeding schedule.—Fourteen records of breeding span the period
March 21 to May 30; the modal date of egg-laying is April 25.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is 4 eggs (3.8, 2-5; 5).

Nests are placed from 15 to 30 feet high, averaging 25 feet in elm,
oak, and other trees.

Red-tailed Hawk: Buteo jamaicensis borealis (Gmelin).—This is a
common resident east of the 100th meridian; to the west numbers are
reduced, although the species is by no means unusual in western
Kansas. Red-tails probably always were uncommon in western Kansas;
Wolfe (1961) reports that they were "very rare as a nesting species"
[Pg 608]in Decatur County shortly after the turn of the 20th Century.
Breeding schedule.—Thirty-six records of breeding span the period
February 21 to April 10 (Fig. 3); the modal date of egg-laying is
March 5.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is 3 eggs (2.6, 2-3; 20).

Nests are placed about 40 feet high, ranging from 15 to 70 feet in
cottonwood, honey locust, osage orange, sycamore, and walnut.

Red-shouldered Hawk: Buteo lineatus lineatus (Gmelin).—This is an
uncommon summer resident in eastern Kansas, in riparian and bottomland
timber. Nesting records are available from Leavenworth, Woodson, and
Linn counties, and red-shoulders probably also nest in Doniphan County
(Linsdale, 1928).

Breeding season.—Eggs are laid in March and April.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is about 3 eggs (Davie, 1898).

Nests are placed up to 70 feet high in elms and other streamside
trees.

Broad-winged Hawk: Buteo platypterus platypterus (Vieillot).—This
is an uncommon summer resident in eastern Kansas, in swampy woodland.
Specimens taken in the breeding season and nesting records are from
Shawnee, Douglas, Leavenworth, and Johnson counties; there are several
nesting records from Missouri in the bottomlands just across the river
from Wyandotte County Kansas. Occurrence in time is listed in Table 11.

Breeding schedule.—Four records of nesting span the period April 21
to May 30, but it is likely that the egg-season is longer than this.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is about 3 eggs.

Nests are placed high in deciduous trees.

Swainson Hawk: Buteo swainsoni Bonaparte.—This is a common summer
resident in prairie grassland with open groves and scattered trees.
Records of breeding are available from all parts of the State, but are
least numerous from the southeastern quarter. Occurrence in time is
listed in Table 11.

Breeding schedule.—Sixteen records of breeding span the period
April 11 to June 10; the modal date for completion of clutches is
April 25.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is 2 eggs (2.4, 2-3; 5).

Nests are placed about 35 feet high, actually ranging from 12 to 75
feet, in cottonwood, elm, willow, and honey locust. Occasionally nests
[Pg 609]
are placed on ledges in cliffs.

Ferruginous Hawk: Buteo regalis
(Gray).—This is an uncommon resident in western Kansas, in grassland
with scattered trees. Records of nesting and specimens taken in the
breeding season come from Wallace, Hamilton, Gove, Logan, and Finney
counties.

Breeding schedule.—Five records of breeding span the period March
11 to April 30.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is about 3 eggs (3.3, 3-4; 4).

Nests are placed on the ground surface on small cliffs or promontories
or low (six to 10 feet) in small trees such as osage orange,
cottonwood, and mulberry.

Marsh Hawk: Circus cyaneus hudsonius (Linnaeus).—This is a local
resident in grassland throughout Kansas. Most records of breeding come
from east of the Flint Hills, but it is not certain that the few
records from the west actually reflect a low density of Marsh Hawks in
that area.

Breeding schedule.—Sixteen records of breeding span the period
April 11 to May 20; the modal date for egg-laying is May 5.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is 5 eggs (5.2, 3-7; 14).

Nests are placed on the ground surface in grassy cover.

Peregrine Falcon: Falco peregrinus anatum Bonaparte.—This falcon
nested, perhaps regularly but clearly in small numbers, in Kansas
prior to the 20th Century. The best documented breeding occurrence was
at Neosho Falls, Woodson County (Goss, 1891:283).

Breeding schedule.—Eggs were recorded as being laid in February and
March.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is 3 or 4 eggs (Davie, 1898).

Nests are placed relatively high on cliffs and in trees; at Neosho
Falls these birds used open cavities 50 to 60 feet high in sycamores.

Sparrow Hawk: Falco sparverius sparverius Linnaeus.—This is a
common resident throughout Kansas, in parkland and woodland edge.

Breeding schedule.—Thirteen records of egg-laying span the period
March 21 to May 20; the modal date of laying is not evident in this
sample but it probably falls around April 10.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is 4 eggs (4.2, 3-5; 5).

Nests are placed in cavities about 16 feet high, actually 12 to 30
feet, in cottonwood, ash, maple, Purple Martin "houses," and human
dwellings.

Greater Prairie Chicken: Tympanuchus cupido pinnatus
(Brewster).—This is a locally common resident in eastern Kansas, in
and about bluestem prairie grassland, and is local in the northwest in
undisturbed plains grassland. Wolfe (1961) reports that the species
was common in Decatur County shortly after the turn of the Century,
but that it became rare by 1914.

Breeding schedule.—Twenty-one records of breeding span the period
May 1 to June 10 (Fig. 3); the modal date for laying is May 5. The
sample indicates an abrupt inception to laying of eggs, and this may
be a reflection of timing characteristic of behavior at leks, or
booming grounds.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is 12 eggs (11.7, 9-15; 17).

Nests are placed on the surface of the ground in bluestem grassland or
[Pg 610]
plains bunchgrass, usually under cover of prairie grasses and forbs.

Lesser Prairie Chicken: Tympanuchus pallidicinctus (Ridgway).—This
is a local resident in sandy grassland in southwestern Kansas.
Distribution is to the west and south of Pawnee County.

Breeding schedule.—There is no information on timing of the
breeding season in Kansas.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is thought to be near that of the
Greater Prairie Chicken. Vic Housholder (MS) observed a hen with ten
chicks ten miles south of Dodge City, Ford County, on June 1, 1955.

Bobwhite: Colinus virginianus (Linnaeus).—This is a common resident
in the east, but is local in western Kansas; occurrence is in broken
woodland and other edge habitats. C. v. virginianus (Linnaeus) is
found northeast of stations in Nemaha, Douglas, and Miami counties,
and C. v. taylori Lincoln is found in the remainder of the State.

Breeding schedule.—Twenty-four records of breeding span the period
May 1 to September 20 (Fig. 3); the modal date for first clutches is
May 25. The long period of egg-laying after May probably includes both
renesting efforts and true second nestings.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is about 13 eggs (12.8, 8-21; 22); in
the present sample 16 eggs was the most frequent number.

Nests are placed on the surface of the ground at bases of bunch
grasses, saplings, trees, or posts, under cover of prairie grasses,
forbs, or small woody plants.

Scaled Quail: Callipepla squamata pallida Brewster.—This is a
locally common resident in southwestern Kansas, chiefly west of Clark
County and south of the Arkansas River; preferred habitat seems to be
in open, sandy prairie.

Breeding schedule.—Eggs are laid at least in May; the egg-season in
Kansas is unlikely to be so prolonged as that of the Bobwhite; among
other factors involved, the Scaled Quail in Kansas is at a northern
extreme of its distribution, where suboptimal environmental conditions
may occur relatively frequently.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is around 10 to 12 eggs.

Nests are placed on the ground surface under woody or herbaceous
cover.

Ring-necked Pheasant: Phasianus colchicus Linnaeus.—This introduced
resident is common in western Kansas, is local and uncommon in the
east, and is found in agricultural land with scattered woody
vegetation.

Breeding schedule.—Eggs are laid at least in May.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is 10 to 12 eggs.

Nests are placed on the surface of the ground in woody or herbaceous
cover.

Wild Turkey: Meleagris gallopavo Linnaeus.—Turkeys formerly
occurred as common residents in flood-plain woodland in eastern Kansas,
and their distribution extended through the west in riparian woodland.
Present population in eastern and southern sectors are partly the
result of introductions of birds from Missouri by humans in the 1950s.
Turkeys in southern Kansas are also present owing to natural dispersal
along the Arkansas and Medicine Lodge rivers of birds native to and
introduced into Oklahoma. No specimens of turkeys presently found in
[Pg 611]
Kansas are available for examination but these birds probably are
referable to M. g. silvestris Vieillot, the trinomen applied to
turkeys in Missouri and northeastern Oklahoma.

Turkeys from southern Texas recently have been liberated at several
localities in southern Nebraska; turkeys seen in extreme northern
Kansas are thus probably of these stocks. The name M. g. intermedia
Sennett is applicable to these birds.

Breeding schedule.—No information is available on the egg-season in
Kansas; turkeys have nested in southern Kansas within recent years,
however.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is perhaps 12 eggs.

Nests are placed on the surface of the ground, usually well-concealed
under woody vegetation.

King Rail: Rallus elegans elegans Audubon.—This summer resident is
locally common in marshlands. Nesting records or adults taken in the
breeding season are from Cheyenne, Meade, Pratt, Stafford, Cloud,
Riley, Douglas, Anderson, and Allen counties. Dates of arrival in
spring are recorded from April 7 to April 28; the median date is April
18. Departure in autumn is possibly as early as September in the
north, but four records are in the period October 12 to November 25.
The species occasionally can be found in winter (Douglas County,
December 28, 1915).

Breeding schedule.—Fourteen records of breeding span the period May
1 to July 20; the modal date for egg-laying is June 5.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is about 10 eggs (9 to 12; 4 records).

Nests are placed on the surface of the ground, under grassy or woody
cover.

Virginia Rail: Rallus limicola limicola Vieillot.—This is an
uncommon summer resident, presumably throughout the State. The one
breeding record is from Morton County (May 24, 1950; Graber and
Graber, 1951). Dates of spring arrival are from April 19 to May 18;
dates of last observation in autumn are within the period September 1
to October 30. A few birds overwinter in the southern part of the
State (Meade County, December and January).

Breeding season.—Eggs are laid probably in May and June.

Number of eggs.—Six to 12 eggs are laid (Davie, 1898).

Nests are placed in emergent aquatic plants, near the surface of the
water.

Sora: Porzana carolina (Linnaeus).—This is an uncommon summer
resident in marshland. Nesting records or specimens taken in the
breeding season come from Finney, Barton, Jefferson, Douglas, and
Miami counties. First dates of observation in spring are from April 11
to May 9 (the median is May 1); dates when last observed in autumn are
from September 30 to November 9 (the median is October 18).

Breeding schedule.—The one dated record comes from August.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is around 10 eggs (Davie, 1898).

Nests are on the ground in grassy or herbaceous cover.

Black Rail: Laterallus jamaicensis jamaicensis (Gmelin).—This is an
uncommon summer resident in Kansas. Records of breeding and specimens
taken in the breeding season come from Finney, Meade, Riley, and
Franklin counties. Seasonal occurrence is within the period March 18
to September 26.

Breeding schedule.—Eggs are laid at least in June.

[Pg 612]
Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is about 8 eggs (6-10; 4). Nests are
on the ground under cover of marsh plants.

Common Gallinule: Gallinula chloropus cachinnans Bangs.—This is a
local summer resident in marshlands. Nesting records and specimens
taken in the breeding season come from Barton, Stafford, Shawnee,
Douglas, and Coffey counties. Occurrence in the State is from April
through September.

Breeding schedule.—Eggs are laid in May and June.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is about 10 eggs.

Nests are in marsh grasses and other emergent vegetation, not
necessarily over water.

American Coot: Fulica americana americana Gmelin.—This is an
uncommon, local summer resident in wetlands in Kansas. Coots are at
greatest abundance in autumnal and spring migratory movements, but are
present all year. Nesting has been recorded from Barton, Stafford,
Doniphan, and Douglas counties.

Breeding schedule.—Thirty-eight records of breeding span the period
May 11 to June 30; the mode to laying is May 25. Earlier breeding
probably occurs in the State.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is 8 eggs (7.7, 5-12; 28).

Nests are made of marsh vegetation (arrowhead, cattail) and float on
water.

Snowy Plover: Charadrius alexandrinus tenuirostris (Lawrence).—This
summer resident is fairly common on the saline flats of central and
south-central Kansas. Breeding records are from Barton, Stafford,
Meade, Clark, and Comanche counties.

Breeding schedule.—Fifteen records show that eggs are laid in the
period May 25 to June 20; the peak of laying seems to be around June 10.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is 3 eggs.

Eggs are deposited on bare sand.

Killdeer: Charadrius vociferus vociferus Linnaeus.—This summer
resident is common throughout the State, in open country frequently
near wetlands. A few individuals overwinter in Kansas, especially in
the southern counties.

Breeding schedule.—The 29 records of breeding span the period March
21 to June 30; the modal date of laying is May 20. The distribution of
completed clutches (Fig. 3) suggests that Killdeers are here
double-brooded.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is 4 eggs.

Eggs are laid on the surface of the ground, frequently on gravel,
field stubble, plowed earth, and pasture.

Mountain Plover: Eupoda montana (Townsend).—This is an uncommon and
local summer resident in western short-grass prairie. Breeding records
come from Greeley and Decatur counties.

Breeding schedule.—Wolfe (1961) wrote that the species in Decatur
County laid eggs in the "last of May" in the early 1900s. The only
other dated breeding record is of downy young (KU 5512, 5513) taken on
June 21.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is usually 3 eggs.

Eggs are laid in slight depressions in the ground, "lined with a few
grass stems," according to Wolfe (1961).

[Pg 613]
American Woodcock: Philohela minor (Gmelin).—This is a rare summer
resident in wet woodlands in eastern Kansas. Arrival in the northeast
is from mid-March through April, with departures southward occurring
from September to December; the last date on which the species has
been seen in any year is December 5. There are nesting records only
from Woodson County; probably the species nests in Douglas County
(Fitch, 1958:194).

Breeding schedule.—Eggs are laid in April.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is usually 4 eggs.

Nests are depressions in the dry ground within swampy places, usually
under heavy plant cover.

Long-billed Curlew: Numenius americanus americanus Bechstein.—This
is an uncommon summer resident in western Kansas, in prairie
grassland. Breeding records are from Stanton and Morton counties.

Breeding schedule.—Eggs are laid at least in May and June.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is 4 eggs.

Eggs are laid in slight depressions in the ground in grassy cover.

Upland Plover: Bartramia longicauda (Bechstein).—This is a locally
common summer resident, most conspicuously in the Flint Hills, in
grassland. Breeding records are from Trego, Hamilton, Finney, Morton,
Meade, Marion, Chase, Kearny, Butler, Cowley, Douglas, Johnson,
Wabaunsee, Franklin, Anderson, and Coffey counties. Dates of first
arrival in spring span the period April 2 to May 5 (the median is
April 19), and dates last seen in autumn are from September 3 to
October 6 (the median is September 13).

Breeding schedule.—Sixteen records of breeding span the period
April 21 to June 10; the modal date for egg-laying is May 5.

Number of eggs.—Usually 4 eggs are laid.

Eggs are placed on vegetation on the ground surface, in pasture, field
stubble, or gravel, frequently under heavy plant cover.

Spotted Sandpiper: Actitis macularia (Linnaeus).—This summer
resident is locally common on wet ground and along streams. Dates of
arrival in spring are from March 29 to April 30 (the median is April
24), and dates of last observation in autumn span the period September
2 to October 10 (the median is September 18).

Breeding schedule.—Egg records are all from the northeastern
sector, and all are for May.

Number of eggs.—Usually 4 eggs are laid.

Nests are of plant fibers in depressions in dry ground on gravel
banks, pond or stream borders, or in pastureland.

American Avocet: Recurvirostra americana Gmelin.—This is a local
summer resident in marshes in central and western Kansas. There are
breeding records from Finney, Barton, and Stafford counties. Extreme
dates within which avocets have been recorded are April 2 to November 21.

Breeding schedule.—Forty-one records of breeding span the period
May 11 to June 20 (26 records shown in Fig. 3); the modal date for
laying is June 5.

Number of eggs.—Usually 4 eggs are laid.

Nests are placed on the surface of the ground, near water.

Wilson Phalarope: Steganopus tricolor Vieillot.—This is a local
summer resident in marshes in central and western Kansas, but breeding
[Pg 614]
records are available only from Barton County. The earliest date of
occurrence is April 7 and the latest is October 14.

Breeding schedule.—Ten records indicate eggs are laid in May and
June.

Number of eggs.—Three or 4 eggs are laid.

Nests are of plant stems in slight depressions in the ground.

Forster Tern: Sterna forsteri Nuttall.—This is a local summer
resident in central Kansas, in marshes. There are breeding records
only from Cheyenne Bottoms, Barton County (Zuvanich, 1963:1). First
dates of arrival in spring span the period April 9 to 29 (the median
is April 22), and apparent departure south in autumn occurs from
August 1 to November 1 (the median is September 3).

Breeding schedule.—Twenty-three records of nesting are from late
May to mid-June; all records are for the year 1962.

Number of eggs.—Usually 4 eggs are laid.

Nests are frequently floating platforms of vegetation (algae, cattail,
and the like) in shallow water; old nests of Pied-billed Grebes are
sometimes used as bases, and occasionally the birds nest on the
ground.

Least Tern: Sterna albifrons athalassos Burleigh and Lowery.—This
tern is a local summer resident in marshes and along streams in
central and western Kansas. There are breeding records from Hamilton,
Meade, and Stafford counties. First dates of arrival in spring are
from May 14 to 30 (the median is May 28), and last dates of occurrence
in autumn are from August 9 to September 7 (the median is August 25).

Breeding schedule.—Twenty-one records of egg-laying are from May 21
to June 30 (Fig. 4); the modal date for laying is June 5.

Number of eggs.—Two, 3 or 4 eggs are laid.

Eggs are laid on the bare ground, usually a sandy surface, near water.

Black Tern: Chlidonias niger surinamensis (Gmelin).—This is a local
summer resident in marshlands in central Kansas. There are breeding
records only from Barton County for 1961 and 1962; possibly the
species breeds in Douglas County. First dates of arrival in spring are
from May 3 to 29 (the median is May 14), and last dates of occurrence
in autumn are from September 2 to 30 (the median is September 11).

Breeding schedule.—Twenty-four sets of eggs (Parmelee, 1961:25; M.
Schwilling) were complete between June 11 and July 12.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is 3 eggs.

Nests are of dead plant matter placed on floating parts of emergent
green plants in shallow water.

Rock Dove: Columba livia Gmelin.—This species was introduced into
North America by man from European stocks of semi-domesticated
ancestry. "Pigeons" now are feral around towns and farms, and
cliffsides in the west, and are locally common permanent residents
throughout the State.

Breeding schedule.—Eggs are laid in every month of the year. The
main season of breeding is spring, and this is depicted in Figure 4;
the 26 records of breeding by feral birds are from January 11 to June
10, and the modal date of laying is probably April 5.

[Pg 615]
Number of eggs.—Pigeons usually lay 2 eggs. Nests are of sticks
and other plant matter placed on ledges and recesses of buildings,
bridges, and cliffs, 10 to 60 feet high.

Fig. 4.—Histograms representing breeding schedules of
the Least Tern, two doves, the Yellow-billed Cuckoo, and two owls in
Kansas. See legend to Figure 1 for explanation of histograms.

Mourning Dove: Zenaidura macroura marginella (Woodhouse).—This is
a common summer resident throughout the State, in open country and woodland
edge. The species is also present in winter in much reduced numbers,
and many are transient in periods of migration. The time of greatest abundance
is from March to November. Doves of extreme eastern Kansas have
by some workers been referred to the subspecies Z. m. carolinensis (Linnaeus);
[Pg 616]
specimens at the Museum of Natural History indicate that these doves are
best regarded as members of populations of intermediate subspecific, or
morphologic, affinities, and that they are satisfactorily included within Z. m.
marginella.

Breeding schedule.—Numerous (983) records of egg-laying from north-central
Kansas are from April 1 to September 10; the modal date for laying
is May 15. Forty-three records of breeding from northeastern Kansas span
the period March 21 to August 10; the modal date of laying is May 15.
These samples are depicted in Figure 4.

Both sets of data are shown here to illustrate some of the differences
between large and small samples of heterogeneous data. The small sample
tends to be incomplete both early and late in the season, and the mode tends
to be conspicuous. Yet, the modes for the two samples coincide. Also, the
data from the north-central sector indicate that egg-laying in March would
be found less than once in 983 records, but the small sample from the northeast
includes one record for March. Such an instance doubtless reflects, at
least in part, the fact that the two geographic sectors have different environmental
conditions, but it is likely that the instance also partly reflects the
unpredictable nature of sampling.

Number of eggs.—Doves lay two eggs. About one per cent of all nests
have 3 eggs, but it is not known for any of these whether one or two females
were responsible.

Nests are placed in a wide variety of plants, or on the ground. The
commonest plants are those used most frequently; in north-central Kansas
one-third of all nests are placed in osage orange trees, but in the northeast
elms are most frequently used. Nestsites are from zero to 15 feet high.

Yellow-billed Cuckoo: Coccyzus americanus americanus (Linnaeus).—This
is a common summer resident in riparian and second-growth habitats throughout
the State. Twenty-three dates of first arrival in spring fall between April 29
and May 22 (the median is May 12), and nine dates of last observation in
autumn run from September 13 to October 12 (the median is September 23).

Breeding schedule.—Sixty-nine records of egg-laying span the period May
11 to September 10 (Fig. 4); the modal date of laying is June 5.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is 3 eggs (3.1, 2-5; 54).

Nests are placed about six feet high (from four to 20 feet) in sumac, rose,
pawpaw, mulberry, elm, cottonwood, willow, redbud, oak, osage orange, walnut,
boxelder, usually on horizontal surfaces, and in heavy cover.

Black-billed Cuckoo: Coccyzus erythropthalmus (Wilson).—This is an uncommon
summer resident, occurring in heavy riparian shrubbery and second-growth.
Breeding records are chiefly from eastern Kansas, but specimens
have been taken in the breeding season in all parts of the State. Eleven
dates of first arrival in spring are from May 7 to May 30 (the median is May
19), and four dates of last observed occurrence in autumn are between September
4 and October 7 (the average is September 18).

Breeding schedule.—Seventeen records of egg-laying are between May 21
and August 10; the mode is at June 5.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is 2 to 3 eggs (2.5, 2-3; 13).

Nests are placed about four feet high in heavy cover in plum, elm, locust,
[Pg 617]
and the like.

Roadrunner: Geococcyx californianus (Lesson).—This is a local resident in
southern Kansas in xeric scrub or open edge habitats. Breeding records are
from Cowley and Sumner counties.

Breeding schedule.—Eggs are laid at least from early April to mid-July.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is about 5 eggs (4.5, 3-6; 4).

Nests are placed on the ground under plant cover, or occasionally low in
bushes.

Barn Owl: Tyto alba pratincola Bonaparte.—This resident has a low density
throughout Kansas in open woodland and near agricultural enterprises of man.

Breeding schedule.—The few records available indicate egg-laying occurs
at least from April to July; elsewhere the species is known to have a more
protracted breeding schedule.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is about 5 eggs (4.7, 2-6; 4).

Nests are informal aggregations of sticks and litter placed in recesses in
stumps, hollow trees, rocky and earthen banks, and dwellings and outbuildings
of man.

Screech Owl: Otus asio (Linnaeus).—This is a common resident in woodland
habitats throughout Kansas. O. a. aikeni (Brewster) occurs west of
Rawlins, Gove, and Comanche counties, and O. a. naevius (Gmelin) occurs
in the remainder of the State except for the eastern south-central sector, occupied
by O. a. hasbroucki Ridgway.

Breeding schedule.—Fifteen records of egg-laying span the period March
20 to May 10; there is a strong mode at April 5.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is 4 eggs (4.0, 3-6; 12).

Nests are placed in holes and recesses in trees, three to 20 feet high.

Great Horned Owl: Bubo virginianus (Gmelin).—This is a common resident
throughout Kansas, especially near woodlands and cliffsides. B. v. virginianus
(Gmelin) occurs east of a line through Rawlins and Meade counties
and B. v. occidentalis Stone occurs to the west.

Breeding schedule.—Fifty-seven records of egg-laying span the period January
11 to March 20 (Fig. 4); the modal date for laying is near February 10.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is 2 eggs (2.4, 2-3; 22).

Nests are placed about 30 feet high in cottonwood, elm, osage orange, hackberry,
juniper, locust, cliffsides, and buildings of man. Old nests of hawks,
crows, and herons are frequently appropriated.

Burrowing Owl: Speotyto cunicularia hypugaea (Bonaparte).—This is an
uncommon summer resident in western Kansas in grassland and open scrub
habitats. Stations of breeding all come from west of a line running through
Cloud and Barber counties. Arrival in spring is between March 22 and April
17 (the median for 7 records is April 9), and dates last seen in autumn span
the period September 8 to November 14 (the median for 9 records is September 26).

Breeding schedule.—Twenty-one records of egg-laying run from April 11
to July 10 (Fig. 4); the mode of laying is May 15.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is 7 or 8 eggs.

Nests are informal aggregations of plant and animal fibers in chambers of
[Pg 618]
earthen burrows usually made by badgers or prairie dogs.

Barred Owl: Strix varia varia Barton.—This is a local resident in eastern
Kansas, in heavy woodland. The species is said by implication (A. O. U.
Check-list, 1957) to occur in western Kansas, but no good breeding records
are available, all such records coming from and east of Morris County.
Specimens from southeastern Kansas show morphologic intergradation with
characters of S. v. georgica Latham.

Breeding schedule.—Three records of egg-laying are for the first half of
March.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size in our sample is 2 eggs.

Nests are situated in cavities in trees or in old hawk or crow nests.

Long-eared Owl: Asio otus wilsonianus (Lesson).—This owl is a local resident
or summer resident in woodland with heavy cover throughout the State.
Breeding records are available from Trego, Meade, Cloud, and Douglas
counties.

Breeding schedule.—Four records of egg-laying are for the period March 11
to April 10.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is 5 or 6 eggs.

Nests are placed in hollows of trees, stumps, cliffsides, on the ground surface,
or in old hawk, crow, or magpie nests (Davie, 1898).

Short-eared Owl: Asio flammeus flammeus (Pontoppidan).—This is a local
resident or summer resident in open, marshy, and edge habitats; records of
nesting come from Republic, Marshall, Woodson, and Bourbon counties.

Breeding schedule.—Eggs are laid at least in April.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is about 6 eggs (Davie, 1898).

Nests are simple structures of sticks and grasses, placed on the ground in
grasses, frequently near cover of downed timber or bushes.

Saw-whet Owl: Aegolius acadicus acadicus (Gmelin).—This is a rare and
local resident, in woodland. There is one breeding record (summer, 1951,
Wyandotte County; Tordoff, 1956:331).

Chuck-will's-widow: Caprimulgus carolinensis Gmelin.—This is a locally
common summer resident in woodland habitats in eastern Kansas. Stations
of occurrence of actual breeding fall south of Wyandotte County and east of
Shawnee, Greenwood, Stafford, and Sedgwick counties.

Breeding schedule.—Five records of breeding come between April 21 and
May 31, with a peak perhaps in the first third of May.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is 2 eggs.

Eggs are laid on heavy leaf-litter, usually under shrubby cover.

Whip-poor-will: Caprimulgus vociferus vociferus Wilson.—This is a local
summer resident in woodland in eastern Kansas. Breeding records are available
only from Doniphan, Leavenworth, and Douglas counties; there are sight
records in summer from Shawnee County.

Breeding schedule.—Two records of breeding cover the period May 21 to
June 20.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is 2 eggs.

Eggs are laid on heavy leaf-litter in shrubby cover.

Poor-will: Phalaenoptilus nuttallii nuttallii (Audubon).—This is a common
[Pg 619]
summer resident in western Kansas, in xeric, scrubby woodland. Breeding
records are chiefly from west of Riley County, but there is one from Franklin
County; specimens taken in the breeding season are available from Doniphan,
Douglas, Anderson, Woodson, and Greenwood counties.

Breeding schedule.—Six records of egg-laying are from the period
May 1 to June 20.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is 2 eggs.

Eggs are laid on the ground, with or without plant cover.

Common Nighthawk: Chordeiles minor (Forster).—This is a common
summer resident throughout Kansas. Temporal occurrence is indicated in
Table 11. Three subspecies reach their distributional limits in the
State, C. m. minor (Forster) in northeastern Kansas, C. m.
chapmani Coues in southeastern Kansas, and C. m. howelli Oberholser
west of the Flint Hills.

Breeding schedule.—Twenty-two records of breeding span the period
May 11 to June 30; the modal date for egg-laying is June 10 (Fig. 5).

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is 2 eggs.

Eggs are laid on the ground in rocky or gravelly areas, on unpaved
roads, or on flat, gravelled tops of buildings of man.

Chimney Swift: Chaetura pelagica (Linnaeus).—This is a common
summer resident in eastern Kansas, around towns. Temporal occurrence
in the State is indicated in Table 12.

Breeding schedule.—Thirty-six records of breeding span the period
May 11 to June 30; the modal date for egg-laying is May 25 (Fig. 5).

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is about 4 eggs.

Nests are secured by means of a salivary cement to vertical surfaces,
usually near the inside tops of chimneys in dwellings of man, but
occasionally in abandoned buildings and hollow trees.

Ruby-throated Hummingbird: Archilochus colubris (Linnaeus).—This is
an uncommon summer resident in eastern Kansas, and is rare in the
west, in towns and along riparian vegetation. Temporal occurrence in
the State is listed in Table 12.

Breeding schedule.—Eight records of breeding fall within the period
May 21 to July 10; there seems to be a peak to laying in the last
[Pg 620]
third of June.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is 2 eggs.

Most nests are on outer branches of shrubs and trees, in forks or on
pendant branches, 10 to 20 feet high.

Belted Kingfisher: Megaceryle alcyon alcyon (Linnaeus).—This summer
resident is common throughout the State in streamside and lakeside
habitats. Timing of arrival and departure of the breeding birds is not
well-documented owing to the fact that the species is also transient
and a winter resident in the State.

Breeding schedule.—Eggs are laid at least from April 21 to May 20.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is near 6 eggs.

Eggs are laid on the floor of the chamber at the inner end of a
horizontal tunnel excavated in an earthen bank. The tunnel is two to
six feet long and many tunnels are strewn with bones and other dietary
refuse.

Yellow-shafted Flicker: Colaptes auratus (Linnaeus).—This is a
common resident and summer resident in eastern Kansas, meeting,
hybridizing with, and partly replaced by Colaptes cafer westward, in
open woodlands. C. a. auratus (Linnaeus) occurs in southeastern
Kansas, and C. a. luteus Bangs occurs in the remainder, intergrading
west of the Flint Hills with C. cafer.

Breeding season.—Forty-eight records of breeding span the period
April 11 to June 10; the modal date for egg-laying is May 10 (Fig. 5).
This sample is drawn from central and eastern Kansas, but includes
records of breeding by some birds identified in the field as C.
cafer.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is about 6 eggs.

Nests are piles of wood chips in cavities excavated in stumps and dead
limbs of trees such as willow, cottonwood, mulberry, and catalpa,
ordinarily about six feet above the ground.

Red-shafted Flicker: Colaptes cafer collaris Vigors.—This
woodpecker is a common summer resident in western Kansas, meeting,
hybridizing with, and largely replaced by C. auratus in central and
eastern sectors. The vast majority of specimens taken in Kansas show
evidence of intergradation with C. auratus.

Breeding schedule.—The few records of flickers identified in the
field as C. cafer have been combined with those of C. auratus
(Fig. 5).

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is perhaps 6 eggs.

Nests are like those of C. auratus.

Pileated Woodpecker: Dryocopus pileatus (Linnaeus).—This is a rare
and local resident in the east, in heavy timber. The species has been
seen, chiefly in winter, in all sectors of eastern Kansas in recent
years, but actual records of breeding come only from Linn and Cherokee
counties. D. p. abieticola (Bangs) occurs in the northeast, and D.
p. pileatus (Linnaeus) in the southeast.

Breeding schedule.—Eggs are laid at least in April.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is 3 or 4 eggs.

Nests are of wood chips in cavities excavated 45 to 60 feet high in
main trunks of cottonwood, sycamore, and pin oak.

Red-bellied Woodpecker: Centurus carolinus zebra (Boddaert).—In
woodland habitats this is a common resident in eastern Kansas, local
in the west.

Breeding schedule.—Thirty-seven records of breeding span the period
March 1 to June 30 (Fig. 5); the modal date of egg-laying is around
[Pg 621]
April 25.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is about 5 eggs.

Nests are of wood chips in cavities excavated in elm, cottonwood, box
elder, ash, hickory, or willow, about 25 feet high (nine to 60 feet).

[Pg 622]

Fig. 5.—Histograms representing breeding schedules
of the Common Nighthawk, Chimney Swift, woodpeckers, and flycatchers
in Kansas. See legend to Figure 1 for explanation of histograms.

Red-headed Woodpecker: Melanerpes erythrocephalus (Linnaeus).—This
is a common summer resident and uncommon permanent resident in open
woodland; in winter it is noted especially around groves of oaks. M.
e. erythrocephalus (Linnaeus) occurs in eastern Kansas and M. e.
caurinus Brodkorb occurs in central and western Kansas.

Breeding schedule.—Fifty-eight records of breeding span the period
May 1 to August 10 (Fig. 5); the modal date of egg-laying is June 5.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is 3 or 4 eggs.

Nests are of wood chips in cavities excavated about 25 feet high in
willow, cottonwood, and elm.

Hairy Woodpecker: Dendrocopos villosus villosus (Linnaeus).—This
resident is common in woodlands throughout the State.

Breeding schedule.—Twenty-eight records of breeding span the period
March 21 to May 30 (Fig. 5); the modal date of egg-laying is May 5.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is about 4 eggs.

Nests are of wood chips in cavities excavated about 13 feet high in
elm, honey locust, and ash.

Downy Woodpecker: Dendrocopos pubescens (Linnaeus).—This resident
is common in woodland throughout the State. D. p. pubescens
(Linnaeus) occurs in southeastern Kansas, and D. p. medianus
(Swainson) in the remainder.

Breeding schedule.—Forty-one records of breeding span the period
April 11 to June 10 (Fig. 5); the modal date of egg-laying is May 5.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is about 4 eggs.

Nests are of wood chips in cavities excavated about 20 feet high in
willow, honey locust, ash, apple, and pear.

Eastern Kingbird: Tyrannus tyrannus (Linnaeus).—This summer
resident is common throughout the east; it is local in the west but
there maintains conspicuous numbers in favorable places, such as
riparian woodland; preferred habitat in eastern sectors is typically
in woodland edge. Temporal occurrence is indicated in Table 13.

Breeding season.—Sixty-three dates of egg-laying span the period
May 11 to July 20 (Fig. 5); the modal date for completion of clutches
is June 15. Nearly 70 per cent of all eggs are laid in June.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is 3 eggs (3.3, 2-3; 10). Clutches are
probably larger than the average in May and smaller in June and July.

Nests are placed in crotches, terminal forks, and some on tops of
limbs, about 16 feet high, in elm, sycamore, honey locust, willow,
oak, apple, and red cedar.

Western Kingbird: Tyrannus verticalis Say.—This summer resident is
common in the west, but is local and less abundant in the east.
Preferred habitat is in woodland edge, open country with scattered
[Pg 623]
trees, and in towns. Temporal occurrence is indicated in Table 13.
Breeding schedule.—The 124 dates of egg-laying span the period May
11 to July 31 (Fig. 5); the modal date for egg-laying is June 15. More
than 70 per cent of all clutches are laid in June.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is 4 eggs (3.6, 3-4; 8).

Nests are placed in crotches, lateral forks, or on horizontal limbs,
about 26 feet high, in cottonwood, elm, osage orange, hackberry, honey
locust, mulberry, oak, and on power poles.

Scissor-tailed Flycatcher: Muscivora forficata (Gmelin).—This
summer resident is common in central and southern Kansas; it is rare
to absent in the northwestern sector, and is local in the northeast.
Preferred habitat is in open country with scattered trees. Temporal
occurrence is indicated in Table 13.

Breeding schedule.—Twenty-eight records of breeding occur from May
21 to July 10 (Fig. 5); the modal date of egg-laying is June 25. The
present sample of records is small, and there is otherwise no evidence
suggesting that the breeding schedule of this species differs from
those of the other two kingbirds in Kansas.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is 3 eggs (3.2, 2-5; 17). Mean
clutch-size for the first peak of laying shown in Figure 5 is 4.0
eggs; that for the second peak is 2.7 eggs.

Nests are placed in forks or on horizontal limbs of osage orange, red
haw, elm, and on crosspieces of power poles, about 15 feet high
(ranging from five to 35 feet).

Great Crested Flycatcher: Myiarchus crinitus boreus Bangs.—This
summer resident is common in eastern Kansas, but is less numerous in
the west. Preferred habitat is in woodland and woodland edge. Temporal
occurrence is indicated in Table 13.

Breeding schedule.—The twenty-two records of egg-laying are in the
period May 11 to July 10 (Fig. 5); the modal date for egg-laying is
June 5. The shape of the histogram (Fig. 5) indicates that some
breeding for which records are lacking occurs earlier in May.

[Pg 624]
Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is 5 eggs (4.8, 4-6; 6).

Nests are placed in hollows and crevices in elm, maple, cottonwood,
willow, pear, apple, oak, drain spouts, and, occasionally, "bird
houses" made by man, about 17 feet high (four to 45 feet high).

Eastern Phoebe: Sayornis phoebe (Latham).—This summer resident is
common in eastern Kansas, but is local in the west. Preferred habitat
is in woodland edge and riparian groves, where most birds are found
near bridges, culverts, or isolated outbuildings of man. Temporal
occurrence is indicated in Table 13.

Breeding schedule.—The 136 records of breeding span the period
March 21 to July 20 (Fig. 5); the modal date for egg-laying is April
25 (for first clutches) and June 5 (for second clutches); this species
seems to be the only double-brooded flycatcher in Kansas.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is 4 to 5 eggs (4.2, 3-5; 58). The
seasonal progression in clutch-size can be summarized as follows:

Nests are placed on horizontal, vertical, or overhanging surfaces of
culverts, bridges, houses of man, earthen cliffs, rocky ledges, and
entrances to caves, at an average height of 7.8 feet.

Say Phoebe: Sayornis saya saya (Bonaparte).—This is a common summer
resident in western Kansas, breeding at least east to Cloud County, in
open country. Occurrence in time is listed in Table 13.

Breeding schedule.—Ten records of breeding fall in the period May 1
to July 20; the modal date for egg-laying is in late May.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is about 5 eggs.

Nests are placed under bridges, in houses, or on cliffsides and
earthen banks.

Acadian Flycatcher: Empidonax virescens (Vieillot).—This is an
uncommon summer resident in eastern Kansas, in woodland and riparian
habitats. Temporal occurrence is indicated in Table 13.

Breeding schedule.—The available records of breeding by this
species in Kansas are too few to indicate reliably the span of the
breeding season. Information on hand suggests that Acadian Flycatchers
lay most eggs in late May or early June, and this places their nesting
peak some 10 to 20 days earlier than peaks for Wood Pewees and Traill
Flycatchers.

Number of eggs.—Five records show 3 eggs each.

Nests are placed about six feet high on terminal twigs of oak and
alder.

Traill Flycatcher: Empidonax traillii traillii (Audubon).—This
flycatcher has only recently been found nesting within Kansas; the
species is not included in analyses above. Twenty-three nesting
records are here reported, for the species in Kansas City, Jackson and
Platte counties, Missouri. Most of these records are from within a few
hundred yards of the political boundary of Kansas. The Traill
Flycatcher is a local summer resident in extreme northeastern Kansas
(Doniphan County), in wet woodland and riparian groves.[Pg 625] Temporal
occurrence is not well-documented; first dates run from May 19 to 25;
the last dates of annual occurrence, possibly not all for transients,
run from August 14 to September 24.

Breeding schedule.—Twenty-three records of breeding are from May 21
to July 10 (Fig. 5); the modal date for egg-laying is June 15.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is 3 eggs (3.4, 2-5; 22).

Nests are placed in forks, crotches, and occasionally near trunks,
chiefly of willow, from 4.5 to 12 feet high (averaging six feet).

Eastern Wood Pewee: Contopus virens (Linnaeus).—This summer
resident is common in the east, but is rare in the west. Preferred
habitat is in edge of forest and woodland. Temporal occurrence is
indicated in Table 13.

Breeding schedule.—Nineteen dates of egg-laying span the period
June 1 to July 20 (Fig. 5); the modal date for completion of clutches
is June 15, and more than half of all clutches are laid in the period
June 11 to 20.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is about 3 eggs.

Nests are placed on upper surfaces of horizontal limbs of oak, elm,
and sycamore, about 22 feet high.

Horned Lark: Eremophila alpestris (Linnaeus).—Breeding populations
are resident in open country with short or cropped vegetation. E. a.
praticola (Henshaw) lives in the east, and E. a. enthymia
(Oberholser) in the west.

Breeding schedule.—Twenty-one records of breeding span the period
March 11 to June 10 (Fig. 6); the modal date for egg-laying is March
25. The histogram (Fig. 6) is constructed on a clearly inadequate
sample, and records of breeding both earlier and later are to be
expected. The peak of first nesting activity is probably reasonably
well-indicated by the available records.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is 3 eggs (3.6, 3-5; 16).

Nests are placed on the ground, usually amid short vegetation such as
cropped prairie grassland or cultivated fields (notably soybeans and
wheat), and occasionally on bare ground.

Tree Swallow: Iridoprocne bicolor (Vieillot).—This is a summer
resident in extreme northeastern Kansas; nesting birds have been found
only along the Missouri River in Doniphan County. Habitat is in open
woodland, and in Kansas is always associated with water. Temporal
occurrence in the State is indicated in Table 14.

[Pg 626]
Breeding schedule.—Eight records of breeding span the period May 21
to June 20; the modal date for egg-laying is May 25. The small sample
may not accurately reflect the peak of nesting activity.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is 5 or 6 eggs (5.5, 5-6; 4).

Nests are placed chiefly in abandoned woodpecker diggings in willows,
four to ten feet high, over water.

Bank Swallow: Riparia riparia riparia (Linnaeus).—This summer
resident is common wherever cut-banks suitable for nesting activities
allow relatively undisturbed behavior. The species is almost always
found near water. Temporal occurrence is indicated in Table 14.

Breeding schedule.—Sixty records of breeding span the period May 11
to June 20 (Fig. 6); the modal date for completion of clutches is June
5.

Nearly 75 per cent of all clutches are laid in the period May 21 to
June 10. Under unusual circumstances time of breeding can be greatly
delayed; such circumstances occurred in 1961 in many places along the
Kansas River in eastern Kansas, where the soft, sandy-clay banks were
repeatedly washed away in May and June by high water undercutting the
cliffs. Bank Swallows attempted to work on burrows in late May, but
stabilization of the banks occurred only by late June, and the peak of
egg-laying for many colonies was around July 12. Records for 1961 are
omitted from the sample used here (Fig. 6).

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is 5 eggs (4.8, 3-7; 60). Yearly
clutch-size at one colony 3 miles east of Lawrence, Douglas County, is
as follows:

The sample for 1961 is that taken in early July when breeding occurred
after a delay of more than a month, as described above.

Nesting chambers are excavated in sandy-clay banks, piles of sand,
piles of sawdust, or similar sites, at ends of tunnels one to more
than three feet in depth from the vertical face of the substrate.

Rough-winged Swallow: Stelgidopteryx ruficollis serripennis
(Audubon).—This summer resident is common in most places; it is not
restricted to a single habitat, but needs some sort of earthen or
other substrate with ready-made burrows for nesting. Temporal
occurrence is indicated in Table 14.

Breeding schedule.—The 14 records of breeding are in the period May
11 to June 30; the modal date of egg-laying is June 5. Seventy per
cent of all eggs are laid in the period May 21 to June 10.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is 5 eggs (5.0, 4-6; 4).

Nesting chambers are in old burrows of Bank Swallows, Kingfishers,
rodents, or in crevices remaining subsequent to decomposition of roots
of plants; frequently this swallow uses a side chamber off the main
tunnel, near the mouth, of a burrow abandoned or still in use by the
other species mentioned above.

Cliff Swallow: Petrochelidon pyrrhonota pyrrhonota (Vieillot).—This
common summer resident occurs wherever suitable sites for nests are
found. Temporal occurrence is indicated in Table 14.

Breeding schedule.—The 610 records of breeding span the period
May 21 to June 30 (Fig. 6); the modal date for egg-laying
is June 5, and 85 per cent
[Pg 627]
of all clutches are laid from May 21 to June 10. Such
synchronous breeding activity is probably a function of strong
coloniality with attendant "social facilitation" of breeding behavior.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is 5 eggs (4.9, 3-7; 7).

Nests are built in mud jugs plastered to vertical rock faces, bridges,
culverts, and buildings from a few feet to more than 100 feet above
the ground.

[Pg 628]

Fig. 6.—Histograms representing breeding schedules
of the Horned Lark and swallows in Kansas. See legend to Figure 1 for
explanation of histograms.

Barn Swallow: Hirundo rustica erythrogaster Boddaert.—This summer
resident is common in most habitats, occurring chiefly about
cultivated fields and pastures. Temporal occurrence is indicated in
Table 14.

Breeding schedule.—Sixty-three records of breeding in northern
Kansas span the period May 1 to July 31 (Fig. 6); the modal date for
completion of first clutches is May 25, and that for the second is
July 5. The schedule of breeding in southern Kansas (chiefly Cowley
County), to judge by 41 records, conforms to the one for northern
Kansas: the season spans the period May 1 to August 10, and the modal
date for first clutches is May 15. The ten-day lag in peak of first
clutches of the northern over the southern sample is about what would
be expected on the basis of differential inception of the biological
growing season from south to north each spring.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size does not vary geographically, to judge
only from the present samples, and all are included in the listing to
follow. The modal size of clutches is 5 eggs (4.7, 3-7; 43); clutches
from the period May 1 to 30 show an average of 5.0 eggs, from June 1
to 20 an average of 4.9 eggs, and from June 21 to August 10, 4.4 eggs.

Nests are usually placed on horizontal surfaces in barns, sheds, or
other such structures; more rarely they are put on bridges, and less
frequently yet on vertical walls of culverts or sheds.

Purple Martin: Progne subis subis (Linnaeus).—This summer resident
is common in the east but rare in the west. The only documented colony
west of the 99th meridian was in Oberlin, Decatur County (Wolfe,
1961), occupied some 50 years ago. Temporal occurrence is indicated in
Table 14.

Breeding schedule.—The breeding season spans the period May 11 to
June 20 (Fig. 6); the modal date of egg-laying is June 5, and 57 per
cent of all clutches are laid in the period June 1 to 10.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is 5 eggs (4.2, 3-6; 33). Mean
clutch-size is 4.3 eggs in May and 4.2 in June. Adults tend to lay
clutches of 5 eggs and first-year birds clutches of 4. Replacement
clutches by birds of any age tend to be of 3 eggs.

Nests are built of sticks and mud placed in cavities; in Kansas these
are almost always in colony houses erected by man. Use of holes and
crevices in old buildings is known to have occurred on the campus of
The University of Kansas in the nineteen thirties (W. S. Long, 1936,
MS), in Oberlin, Decatur County in 1908-1914 (Wolfe, loc. cit.), and
presently in Ottawa, Franklin County (Hardy, 1961).

Blue Jay: Cyanocitta cristata bromia Oberholser.—This resident is
common throughout Kansas in woodland habitats. Most first-year birds
move south in winter, but adults tend to be strictly permanent
residents. Groups of ten to more than 50 individuals can be seen
moving south in October and north in April. All individuals taken from
such mobile groups are in first-year feather.

Breeding schedule.—Eighty-three records of breeding span the period
April 10 to July 10 (Fig. 7); the modal date of egg-laying is May 15,
and about 50 per cent of all clutches are laid in the period May
11-31.

[Pg 629]
Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is 4 eggs (4.1, 3-6; 15).

Nests are placed from eight to 70 feet high (averaging 24 feet) in
forks, crotches, and on horizontal limbs of elm, maple, osage orange,
cottonwood, and ash.

Black-billed Magpie: Pica pica hudsonia (Sabine).—This resident is
common in western Kansas, along riparian groves and woodland edge.
Records of nesting are from as far east as Clay County. Wolfe (1961)
outlines the history of magpies in Decatur County as follows: the
species was purported to have appeared in rural districts near Oberlin
in 1918, but Wolfe saw the birds only by 1921, at which time he also
found the first (used) nests. The first reported occupied nest was one
in Hamilton County in 1925 (Linsdale, 1926). Earlier records, chiefly
of occurrence in winter, can be found in Goss (1891).

Breeding schedule.—Fourteen records of breeding span the period
April 11 to June 20; the modal date for egg-laying is May 15.

Number of eggs.—There are no data on clutch-size in Kansas;
elsewhere Black-billed Magpies lay 3 to 9 eggs, and clutches of 7 are
found most frequently (Linsdale, 1937:104).

Nests are placed from 10 to 18 feet high (averaging 13 feet) in forks
or lateral masses of branches in cottonwood, box elder, ash, and
willow.

White-necked Raven: Corvus cryptoleucus Couch.—This summer resident
is common in western Kansas, probably occupying locally favorable
sites in prairie grassland and woodland edge west of a line from Smith
to Seward counties. The species is known to nest in Cheyenne, Sherman,
and Finney counties.

Breeding schedule.—There are few data from Kansas; Aldous (1942)
states that the birds begin activities leading to building sometime in
April in Oklahoma; the peak of egg-laying probably occurs in May,
which coincides with the records from Kansas.

Number of eggs.—Outside Kansas, this species lays 3 to 7 eggs;
these figures seem applicable to Kansas, where brood sizes are known
to run from 1 to 7 young.

Nests are placed about 20 feet high in cottonwood and other trees.

Common Crow: Corvus brachyrhynchos brachyrhynchos Brehm.—This
resident is common in most of Kansas, but numbers are lower in the
west. Distribution in the breeding season is west at least to
Cheyenne, Logan, and Meade counties.

Breeding schedule.—Sixty-nine records of breeding span the period
March 10 to May 31 (Fig. 7); the modal date for egg-laying is April 5,
and 60 per cent of all eggs are laid between March 21 and April 10.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is 4 eggs (4.2, 3-5; 19).

Nests are placed about 20 feet high in crotches near trunks or heavy
branches of such trees as red cedar, elm, oak, osage orange,
cottonwood, honey locust, box elder, and pine.

Black-capped Chickadee: Parus atricapillus Linnaeus.—This resident
is common north of the southernmost tier of counties, in forested and
wooded areas. P. a. atricapillus Linnaeus occurs chiefly east of the
98th meridian, and P. a. septentrionalis Harris occurs west of this;
a broad zone of intergradation exists between these two subspecies.[Pg 630]
Breeding schedule.—Fifty-one records of breeding span the period
March 21 to June 10 (Fig. 7); the modal date for laying is April 15,
and 64 per cent of all eggs are laid between April 11 and 30.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is 5 eggs (5.4, 4-7; 10).

Nests are placed in cavities about ten feet high (ranging from four to
20 feet) in willow, elm, cottonwood, honey locust, apricot, or
nestboxes placed by man.

[Pg 631]

Fig. 7.—Histograms representing breeding schedules
of crows, chickadees, wrens, thrashers, thrushes, and their allies in
Kansas. See legend to Figure 1 for explanation of histograms.

Carolina Chickadee: Parus carolinensis atricapilloides Lunk.—This
resident is common in the southernmost tier of counties, from Comanche
County east, in forest and woodland edge. Actual records of breeding
are from Barber and Montgomery counties.

Breeding schedule.—There are no data on breeding of this species in
Kansas.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is about 5 eggs.

Nests are placed in cavities of trees.

Tufted Titmouse: Paras bicolor Linnaeus.—This resident is common in
the eastern half of Kansas, in woodlands. Specimens taken in the
breeding season and nesting records come from east of a line running
through Cloud, Harvey, and Sumner counties, and the species probably
breeds in Barber County.

Breeding schedule.—Twenty-two records of breeding span the period
March 21 to June 10 (Fig. 7); the modal date for laying is April 25,
and 54 per cent of all clutches are laid in the period April 11 to 30.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is 4 to 5 eggs (4.5; 6).

Nests are placed in cavities about 12 feet high (ranging from three to
30 feet) in elm, oak, cottonwood, hackberry, redbud, osage orange, and
nestboxes placed by man.

White-breasted Nuthatch: Sitta carolinensis Latham.—This resident
in eastern Kansas, in well-developed woodland, is uncommon. S. c.
cookei Oberholser occurs east of a line running through Douglas and
Cherokee counties, on the basis of specimens taken in the breeding
season and actual nesting records, and S. c. carolinensis Latham
occurs in Montgomery and Labette counties. S. c. nelsoni Mearns has
been recorded in Morton County but probably does not breed there.

Breeding schedule.—Eggs are laid in March and April; young have
been recorded being fed by parents throughout May.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is between 5 and 10 eggs.

Nests are placed in cavities about 30 feet high in elm and sycamore.

House Wren: Troglodytes aedon parkmanii Audubon.—This summer
resident is common in the east and uncommon in the west. Preferred
habitat is in woodland, brushland, and urban parkland. House Wrens
arrive in eastern Kansas in the period April 3 to 27 (the median is
April 19), and are last seen in autumn in the period September 19 to
October 13 (the median is September 30).

Breeding schedule.—The 116 records of breeding span the period
April 11 to July 31 (Fig. 7); the modal date of laying is May 20.
About 45 per cent of all clutches are laid in the period May 11 to 31.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is 7 eggs (5.8, 3-7; 20). Clutches laid
in May average 6.1 eggs (4-7; 14); those laid in June and July average
5.0 eggs (3-7; 6).

Nests are placed in cavities about ten feet high (ranging from two to
50 feet) in cottonwood, elm, willow, and a wide variety of structures,
mostly nestboxes, built by man.

Bewick Wren: Thryomanes bewickii Audubon.—This wren is an uncommon
resident in Kansas, except for the northeastern quarter, in woodland understory
[Pg 632]
and brushland. T. b. bewickii Audubon occurs north and
east of stations in Riley, Pottawatomie, Douglas, and Linn counties,
and T. b. cryptus Oberholser is found south of stations in Greeley,
Stafford, and Linn counties; a zone of intergradation occurs between
the two named populations. The species occupies marginal habitat in
most of Kansas and periodically is reduced in numbers by severe
winters.

Breeding schedule.—Twenty-two records of breeding span the period
March 21 to July 10 (Fig. 7); the modal date for first clutches is
April 15 and for second clutches June 15.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is 5 eggs (5.5, 5-7; 12).

Nests are placed in crevices about five feet high (ranging from zero
to nine feet) in trees (oak, cherry, and pear), boulders, and a wide
variety of structures, some of them nestboxes, built by man;
appropriation and modification of nests of Barn Swallows is known to
occur.

Carolina Wren: Thryothorus ludovicianus ludovicianus Latham.—This
common resident of southeastern Kansas in woodland understory and
brushland is uncommon in the northeastern and south-central sectors.
Stations of breeding all fall east of a line running through Doniphan,
Riley, and western Reno counties. North and west of southeastern
Kansas the Carolina Wren is in marginal habitat and periodically is
reduced in numbers by severe winters.

Breeding schedule.—Fourteen records of breeding span the period
April 11 to August 10; the modal date for laying is April 15, to judge
only from the present sample. The species probably breeds also in late
March and early April.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is 4 eggs (4.2, 3-8; 9).

Nests are placed near the ground in stumps, and a wide variety of
structures built by man, or in crevices in earthen banks.

Long-billed Marsh Wren: Telmatodytes palustris dissaëptus
(Bangs).—This is an uncommon summer resident in eastern Kansas in and
around marshes. Presumably breeding individuals occur east of stations
in Doniphan, Shawnee, and Sedgwick counties, but actual records of
breeding come only from Doniphan County (Linsdale, 1928:505). First
dates of arrival in spring run from April 19 to 29 (the median is
April 22), and dates of last autumnal occurrence are from September 26
to October 31 (the median is October 8).

Breeding schedule.—Eggs are laid from May to August.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is 5 or 6 eggs; the range is from 3 to
10 (Welter, 1935).

Nests are woven of broad-bladed grasses, usually no farther than two
feet from water or mud, suspended in vertical plant stalks or branches
in marshes.

Short-billed Marsh Wren: Cistothorus platensis stellaris
(Nauman).—This rare and irregular summer resident in northeastern
Kansas occurs in wet meadowland. Breeding records are available from
Douglas and Coffey counties. Temporal occurrence in the State is at
least from April 29 to October 25; early dates are most likely of
transients.

Breeding schedule.—Eggs are laid in late July and August.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is 6 or 7 eggs.

Nests are woven of plant fibers and placed in vertically-running
stalks and stems of grasses and short, woody vegetation, within two
feet of the ground.

[Pg 633]
Rock Wren: Salpinctes obsoletus obsoletus
(Say).—This species is a common summer resident in western Kansas, in
open, rocky country. Specimens taken in the breeding season and actual
nests found come from west of stations in Decatur, Trego, and Comanche
counties. Dates of occurrence are from April 2 to October 25.
Autumnal, postbreeding movement brings the species east at least to
Cloud County (October 7, 8, and 12) and Douglas County (October 25).

Breeding schedule.—Sixteen records of breeding span the period May
11 to July 20; the modal date for egg-laying is June 15.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is 5 eggs (4.6, 3-7; 5).

Nests are placed in holes in rocks, occasionally in rodent burrows,
from ground level to 80 feet high on faces of cliffs, but there
averaging about 20 feet.

Northern Mockingbird: Mimus polyglottos (Linnaeus).—This is a
common resident in parkland and brushy savannah throughout Kansas. M.
p. polyglottos (Linnaeus) occurs in the east, and M. p. leucopterus
(Vigors) in the west; a broad zone of intergradation exists between
the two. Most specimens from Kansas are of intermediate morphology.

Breeding schedule.—Sixty-nine records of breeding span the period
April 21 to July 31 (Fig. 7); the modal date for first clutches is
June 5, but is weakly indicated in the histogram (Fig. 7).

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is 3 eggs (3.5, 3-5; 27). Size of
clutch does not vary seasonally or geographically in the present
sample.

Nests are placed about four feet high (two to 10 feet) in osage
orange, red cedar, mulberry, scotch pine, catalpa, cottonwood, rose,
and arbor vitae.

Catbird: Dumetella carolinensis (Linnaeus).—This is a common summer
resident in the eastern half of Kansas, but is local in the west, in
and near woodland edge and second-growth. First dates of arrival in
spring are from April 25 to May 14 (the median is May 6), and last
dates of autumnal occurrence are between September 20 and November 16
(the median is September 26).

Breeding schedule.—Seventy-seven records of breeding span the
period May 11 to July 31 (Fig. 7); the modal date for egg-laying is
May 25, and 57 per cent of all clutches are laid from May 21 to June
10.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is 4 eggs (3.3, 2-5; 43). Clutches laid
between May 11 and June 10 tend to be of 4 eggs (3.5, 2-5; 27), and
clutches laid between June 11 and July 31 tend to be of 3 eggs (2.9,
2-4; 16).

Nests are placed about four feet high in shrubs (rose, lilac, plum,
elderberry) and about seven feet high in trees (red cedar, honey
locust, willow, elm, apple, and in vines in such trees).

Brown Thrasher: Toxostoma rufum (Linnaeus).—This is a common summer
resident in woodland understory, edge, and second-growth. T. r.
rufum (Linnaeus) occurs in eastern Kansas, to the western edge of the
Flint Hills, and T. r. longicauda Baird occurs west of stations in
Decatur, Lane, and Meade counties; the intervening populations are of
intermediate morphologic character. Some individuals overwinter in
Kansas, but most are regular migrants and summer residents, arriving
in spring from April 1 to April 25 (the
[Pg 634]
median is April 19), and departing in autumn between September 19 and
October 13 (the median is September 28).

Breeding schedule.—The 237 records of breeding span the period May
1 to July 20 (Fig. 7); the modal date for egg-laying is May 15, and
one-third of all eggs are laid in the period May 11 to 20.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is 4 eggs, ranging from 2 to 5.
Seasonal variation and mean values are shown in Table 15.

Nests are placed about four feet high (ranging from 1²/₃ to 15 feet)
in osage orange, elm, ornamental evergreens, gooseberry, barberry,
honey locust, cottonwood, red cedar, rose, plum, honeysuckle, spirea,
arbor vitae, willow, oak, apple, dogwood, and maple.

Robin: Turdus migratorius migratorius Linnaeus.—This summer
resident is common in the east, and is locally common in the west.
Some individuals, usually in small groups, can be seen throughout the
winter in eastern Kansas, and their presence makes it difficult to
document dates of arrival and departure of the strictly summer
resident birds; these can be said to arrive in March and to leave in
October, but these indications are the barest approximations.

Breeding schedule.—The 334 records of breeding span the period
April 1 to July 20 (Fig. 7); the modal date of laying of first
clutches is April 25, but subsequent peaks are indistinct. Nearly half
of all eggs are laid in the period April 11 to 30.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is 3 eggs (3.6, 3-6; 57). Clutches laid
prior to May 10 average 3.6 eggs (3-6; 47), and those laid subsequent
to May 10 average 3.5 eggs (3-4; 10).

Nests are placed about 13 feet from the ground (ranging from two to 30
feet) in elm, ornamental conifers, fruit trees, cottonwood, mulberry,
walnut, hackberry, oak, ash, maple, osage orange, and coffeeberry.
Robins rarely nest in manmade structures, such as on rafters in sheds
and barns, on bridge stringers, and, exceptionally, on electrical
utility pole installations.

Wood Thrush: Hylocichla mustelina (Gmelin).—This is an uncommon
summer resident in eastern Kansas, presently absent from the State
west of stations in Cloud and Barber counties. Preferred habitat is
found in understory of forest and woodland. Wood Thrushes appear to
have nested in small numbers as far west as Oberlin, Decatur County
(Wolfe, 1961), some 50 years ago, but have since disappeared from such
places, probably as a result
[Pg 635]
of progressive modification of watershed and riparian timber by man. First
dates of arrival in spring are from April 19 to May 20 (the median is May 9),
and departure southward is in the period September 3 to October 1 (the median
is September 15).

Breeding schedule.—Thirty-eight records of breeding fall in the
period May 11 to August 10 (Fig. 7); the modal date of egg-laying is
June 5 for first clutches. Fifty-five per cent of all eggs are laid
between May 21 and June 10.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is 3 eggs (3.4, 3-4; 9).

Nests are placed about 11 feet high in elm, dogwood, willow, linden,
and oak.

Eastern Bluebird: Sialia sialis sialis (Linnaeus).—This locally
common resident and summer resident in eastern Kansas, is only casual
west of Comanche County, in open parkland and woodland edge.

Breeding schedule.—Fifty-four records of breeding span the period
April 1 to July 20 (Fig. 7); the modal date for first clutches is
April 25 and for second clutches is June 5.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is 5 eggs (4.9, 4-6; 15).

Nests are placed in cavities about eight feet high in trees (elm, box
elder, fruit trees, willow, and ash), and about four feet high in
stumps, fence posts, and nestboxes placed by man.

Blue-gray Gnatcatcher: Polioptila caerulea caerulea
(Linnaeus).—This summer resident is common in eastern Kansas in
brushy woodland, edge, and second growth. Specimens taken in the
breeding season and nesting records come from east of stations in
Riley and Cowley counties, but there is a breeding specimen from
Oklahoma just south of Harper County, Kansas. The species is present
from March 30 to September 18.

Breeding schedule.—Twelve records of breeding span the period April
20 to June 20; the modal date for egg-laying is May 10.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is about 5 eggs.

Nests are placed in forks or on limbs about 17 feet high in oak, elm,
honey locust, red haw, pecan, and walnut.

Cedar Waxwing: Bombycilla cedrorum Vieillot.—This waxwing is a
rare, local, and highly irregular summer resident in northeastern
Kansas, in woodland and forest edge habitats. The known nesting
stations are in Wyandotte and Shawnee counties; six nests have been
found in the period 1949 to 1960. The species has been recorded in all
months.

Breeding schedule.—Eggs are laid in June and early July.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is about 4 eggs (Davie, 1898).

Nests are placed four to 24 feet high in a variety of deciduous and
coniferous trees and shrubs.

Loggerhead Shrike: Lanius ludovicianus Linnaeus.—This common
resident and summer resident favors open country with scattered shrubs
and thickets. L. l. migrans Palmer occurs in eastern Kansas, west to
about the 96th meridian, and L. l. excubitorides Grinnell occurs in
western Kansas, east to about the 100th meridian; populations of
intermediate character occupy central Kansas. These shrikes tend to be
resident in southern counties, but are migratory in the north. Dates
of spring arrival in Cloud County are between March 9 and
[Pg 636]
31 (the median is March 21) and the birds leave southward between October 19
and December 19 (the median is November 1).

Breeding schedule.—Fifty-seven records of breeding span the period
April 1 to June 30 (Fig. 7); the modal date for egg-laying is April
15.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is 5 eggs (5.3, 4-7; 32). There is no
seasonal variation in the sample.

Nests are placed about six feet high (ranging from four to 10 feet) in
osage orange, small pines, honeysuckle vines, and elm.

Starling: Sturnus vulgaris Linnaeus.—This species is a common
resident in towns and around farms, foraging in open fields of various
kinds. Starlings (introduced into North America from European stocks
of S. v. vulgaris) first appeared in eastern Kansas in the early
1930s and were established as successful residents by 1935 or 1936.
Occupancy of Kansas to the west took only a few years. There are no
specimens taken in the breeding season or actual nesting records from
southwest of Ellis and Stafford counties; Starlings seem to be
resident in Cheyenne County, but no nesting record exists from there.

Breeding schedule.—Sixty-seven records of breeding span the period
March 1 to June 30 (Fig. 7); the modal date for first clutches is
April 15, and for second clutches is June 5.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is 5 eggs (5.2, 4-8; 19).

Nests are placed about 22 feet high (ranging from eight to 50 feet) in
crevices in elm, locust, hackberry, nestboxes placed by man, and in a
variety of other structures of man.

Black-capped Vireo: Vireo atricapilla Woodhouse.—This was a summer
resident, apparently of limited distribution but in good numbers, in
Comanche County, in oak woodland and brushland edge. No specimens have
been taken in Kansas since 1885.

Breeding schedule.—Eggs are probably laid in May and June. Goss
(1891:351) found a nest under construction on May 11, 1885, and this
is the only nesting record of the species in the State.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is about 4 eggs (Davie, 1898).

Nests are placed low, perhaps around four feet high, in deciduous
trees and shrubs (Davie, op. cit.).

White-eyed Vireo: Vireo griseus noveboracensis (Gmelin).—This is a
local summer resident in eastern Kansas, in woodland and forest edge.
Stations of breeding occurrence are in Doniphan, Douglas, Johnson,
Anderson, Labette, and Montgomery counties. The species is present
within the extreme dates of April 23 to October 5 (Table 16).

Breeding schedule.—Ten records of breeding span the period May 10
to June 30; the modal date for egg-laying is June 10. The present
sample is not adequate to indicate extreme or modal dates with
reasonable accuracy.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is 4 eggs (3.6, 3-4; 5).

Nests are placed relatively low in forks in trees and shrubs.

Bell Vireo: Vireo bellii bellii Audubon.—This summer resident is
common in riparian thickets and second-growth scrub. Temporal
occurrence is indicated in Table 16.

[Pg 637]
Breeding schedule.—Sixty-six records of breeding span the period
May 1 to July 20 (Fig. 7); the modal date for egg-laying
is May 25, and a little under 40 per cent of all eggs are laid in the period
May 21-31. Renesting following disruption of first nests is regular, and the
small peak in the histogram in the period June 11-20 is representative of this.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is 4 eggs (4.6, 3-6; 21). Clutches in
May have an average of 3.7 eggs, and those in June and July 3.6 eggs.

Nests are placed about two feet high (ranging from one to five feet)
in terminal or lateral forks of small branches in elm, hackberry,
osage orange, coralberry, dogwood, plum, honey locust, mulberry,
willow, cottonwood, and box elder.

Yellow-throated Vireo: Vireo flavifrons Vieillot.—This is a rare
and local summer resident in deciduous forest and woodland in eastern
Kansas. Stations of breeding occurrence fall east of Shawnee and
Woodson counties. Temporal occurrence is indicated in Table 16.

Breeding schedule.—Eggs are laid at least in May.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is about 4 eggs.

Nests are placed 16 to 30 feet high in forks of mature deciduous
trees.

Red-eyed Vireo: Vireo olivaceus olivaceus (Linnaeus).—This summer
resident is common in the east, but is local and less abundant in the
west, in woodland and deciduous forest. Temporal occurrence is
indicated in Table 16.

Breeding schedule.—Eight records of breeding fall in the period May
21 to July 31; most records of egg-laying are in the first week of
June.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is 4 eggs (4.0, 3-5; 5).

Nests are placed in forks of mature deciduous trees, usually fairly
high—perhaps 15 to 25 feet (Davie, 1898).

Warbling Vireo: Vireo gilvus gilvus (Vieillot).—This summer
resident is common in woodland and forest edge. Temporal occurrence is
indicated in Table 16.

Breeding schedule.—Seventeen records of breeding span the period
May 1 to June 20, but it is likely that breeding later in June and
July will be recorded. The modal date for egg-laying is June 5, and
this seems to be a reliable index to the major effort in egg-laying in
spite of the small sample.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is 4 eggs (3.6, 3-4; 5).[Pg 638] Nests are
placed three to 25 feet high in a variety of deciduous shrubs and
trees.

Black-and-white Warbler: Mniotilta varia (Linnaeus).—This local and
uncommon summer resident lives in deciduous forest and woodland.
Specimens taken in the breeding season and actual records of nesting
come from Doniphan, Douglas, Coffey, Greenwood, Sedgwick, Labette, and
Cherokee counties. Temporal occurrence in the State is indicated in
Table 17.

Breeding schedule.—Eggs are laid in May and June.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is around 5 eggs (Davie, 1898).

Nests are placed on the ground, in depressions or niches, under heavy
cover.

Prothonotary Warbler: Protonotaria citrea (Boddaert).—This is a
local summer resident in eastern Kansas, in understory of riparian
timber and swampy woodland. Specimens taken in the breeding season and
actual records of nesting come from Doniphan, Douglas, Linn, and
Cowley counties. Temporal occurrence is indicated in Table 17.

Breeding schedule.—Twenty-two records of breeding span the period
May 11 to July 10 (Fig. 8); the modal date for egg-laying is June 5,
and 75 per cent of all clutches are laid in the period June 1 to 20.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is 5 eggs (4.5, 3-6; 15).

Nests are placed in holes and niches in willow, red haw, elm, and a
variety of stumps, about eight feet high (ranging from five to 20
feet), usually over water. A pair nested once in a gourd under the
eave of a house in Winfield, Cowley County, and another pair in a tin
cup on a shelf at a sawmill (Goss, ex Long, 1936).

Parula Warbler: Parula americana (Linnaeus).—This summer resident
in eastern Kansas usually can be found in heavy woodland and
flood-plain timber. Specimens taken in the breeding season and actual
records of breeding come from Doniphan, Riley, Douglas, Montgomery,
Labette, and Cherokee counties. Temporal occurrence is indicated in
Table 17.

Breeding schedule.—Eggs are laid at least from mid-May to mid-June.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is about 4 eggs.

Nests are placed in debris in root tangles along stream banks, and,
presumably, in pendant arboreal lichens.

Yellow Warbler: Dendroica petechia (Linnaeus).—This summer resident
is common in the east, in woodland and riparian growths. D. p.
aestiva (Gmelin) occupies eastern Kansas west at least to Barber
County, but it is not known how far west representatives of this
population breed. D. p. morcomi Coale breeds in western Kansas. D.
p. sonorana Brewster, a name applicable to Yellow Warblers of the
southwestern United States and northern Mexico, has been considered a
"straggler" (Long, 1940) or probable summer resident (Tordoff, 1956;
Johnston, 1960) in southwestern Kansas, on the basis of one specimen
taken on June 24, 1911, at a point two miles south of Wallace, Wallace
County. This specimen, which is pale, was identified in 1935 as D. p.
sonorana by H. C. Oberholser. Specimens taken subsequently from
Cheyenne, Hamilton, and Morton counties in the breeding season can be
referred adequately to D. p. morcomi. Probably the specimen of 1911
is a pale variant of D. p. morcomi within its normal distributional
range.[Pg 639] Breeding schedule.—Thirty-five records of breeding span the
period May 11 to June 20 (Fig. 8); this probably is inadequate to show
the extent of the season, and some egg-laying into July is likely to
be found in the future. The modal date of egg-laying is May 25, and
this is likely to be reliable.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is 4 eggs (4.2, 3-5; 29).

Nests are placed about nine feet high (ranging from five to 20 feet)
in crotches of trees and shrubs including willow, elderberry,
cottonwood, crabapple, plum, and coralberry.

Prairie Warbler: Dendroica discolor discolor (Vieillot).—This rare,
local summer resident occurs in deciduous second-growth. The only
breeding records are from Wyandotte and Johnson counties.

Breeding schedule.—Eggs are laid at least in June.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is about 4 eggs (Davie, 1898).

Nests are placed low, perhaps about four feet high, in a wide variety
of small trees and shrubs.

Louisiana Waterthrush: Seiurus motacilla (Vieillot).—This uncommon
to rare summer resident in eastern Kansas lives in woodland understory
near streams. Nesting records come from Douglas, Miami, Linn, and
Crawford counties. Wolfe (1961) reports he found a nest with young
near Oberlin, Decatur County, on June 10, 1910, under an overhanging
bank of Sappa Creek; Decatur County is some 250 miles west of the
present western limit of the breeding range of the Louisiana
Waterthrush, and western habitats are not favorable for their
occurrence. Temporal characteristics of their distribution are
indicated in Table 17.

Breeding schedule.—Eggs are laid in May and June.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is about 5 eggs (Davie, 1898).

Nests are placed in concealed places in banks or stumps always where
it is wet.

[Pg 640]

Kentucky Warbler: Oporornis formosus (Wilson).—This is an uncommon
summer resident in eastern Kansas, in deciduous forest and woodland.
Specimens taken in the breeding season and actual records of nesting
come from Riley, Doniphan, Douglas, Leavenworth, Linn, Montgomery, and
Labette counties. Temporal occurrence is indicated in Table 17.

Breeding schedule.—Eggs are laid in May and June.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is 4 or 5 eggs.

Nests are placed near or on the ground, usually at the base of small
shrubs or clumps of grass.

Yellowthroat: Geothlypis trichas (Linnaeus).—This summer resident
in and near marshes is common in the east and is local and somewhat
less common in the west. G. t. brachydactylus (Swainson) breeds east
of stations in Clay, Greenwood, and Montgomery counties, G. t.
occidentalis Brewster breeds west of stations in Decatur, Stafford,
and Pratt counties, and the intervening area is occupied by warblers
of intermediate morphologic characters. Temporal occurrence is
indicated in Table 17.

Breeding schedule.—Nine records of breeding span the period May 11
to June 10; the modal date of egg-laying is June 1. The season is
probably more extended in time than is indicated by the available
records.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is 5 eggs (4.8, 4-5; 6).

Nests are placed in cattails and sedges one to two and one-half feet
high.

Yellow-breasted Chat: Icteria virens (Linnaeus).—This summer
resident is common in willow thickets and rank second-growth. I. v.
virens (Linnaeus) breeds in eastern Kansas, from Nemaha County south,
I. v. auricollis (Deppe) breeds in western Kansas, from Norton
County south, and the intervening sector is occupied by chats of
intermediate morphologic character. Temporal occurrence is indicated
in Table 17.

Breeding schedule.—Twenty-six records of breeding span the period
May 11 to July 20 (Fig. 8); the modal date for completion of clutches
is June 5. Forty-two per cent of all eggs are laid in the period June
1 to 10.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is 4 eggs (3.9, 3-5; 21). Clutches in
May are larger than those in June and July.

Nests are placed in forks and crotches about three feet high in
dogwood, willow, rose, coralberry, cottonwood, and thistles.

Hooded Warbler: Wilsonia citrina (Boddaert).—This warbler is a rare
summer resident in eastern Kansas, in wet, open woodland. Specimens (a
total of four) taken in the breeding season are from Leavenworth and
Shawnee counties, and the one nesting record is from Anderson County.

Breeding schedule.—Eggs are laid at least in May.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is about 4 eggs.

Nests are low (some as high as six feet) in woody vegetation.

American Redstart: Setophaga ruticilla ruticilla (Linnaeus).—This
summer resident occurs locally in woodlands east from stations in
Cloud and Sumner Counties. Temporal occurrence is indicated in Table 17.

Breeding schedule.—Eggs are laid in May and June.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is about 4 eggs (Davie, 1898), but
there are two records of 5 in Kansas.[Pg 641] Nests are placed six to 30 feet
high, but usually about 12 feet, in forks or saddled on a branch, in
deciduous trees.

Fig. 8.—Histograms representing breeding schedules of
wood warblers, the House Sparrow, icterids, and cardinal grosbeaks in
Kansas. See legend to Figure 1 for explanation of histograms.

House Sparrow: Passer domesticus (Linnaeus).—This sparrow,
introduced from stocks in Ohio and New York (originally from England
and Germany), has been present since about 1876 in eastern Kansas; it
is a common resident in towns and at farmsteads throughout the state.

Nomenclaturally, House Sparrows in North America consistently have
been[Pg 642] referred to the European ancestral stocks, P. d. domesticus,
but none in North America today duplicates morphologically the
European birds. This is evidence of meaningful adaptation of the North
American populations to environments in which they now live, and
continued use of P. d. domesticus is misleading. Studies on local
differentiation in North American House Sparrows are in progress, and
when the biology of sparrows in the midwest is better understood,
suitable nomenclatural proposals will be made.

Breeding schedule.—Fifty-one records of breeding span the period
March 20 to July 20 (Fig. 8); the modal date for laying of first
clutches is April 5, and for second clutches May 5.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is 4 eggs (3.9, 3-7; 13).

Nests are placed in niches of various sorts seven to 50 feet high in
buildings, nestboxes, and trees, or freely situated in forks and
crotches of large trees.

Bobolink: Dolichonyx oryzivorus (Linnaeus).—This species is a rare
and local summer resident, in and about grassy meadows. There are but
two stations of breeding in Kansas: Jamestown State Lake, Cloud
County, and Big Salt Marsh, Stafford County. Temporal occurrence is
indicated in Table 18.

Breeding schedule.—Eggs are laid in June.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is about 5 eggs.

Nests are placed on the ground amidst grasses.

Eastern Meadowlark: Sturnella magna (Linnaeus).—This summer
resident and resident is common in eastern Kansas, in moist grassland.
S. m. argutula Bangs occurs in Montgomery, Labette, and Cherokee
counties and intergrades to the north and west with S. m. magna
(Linnaeus). Good numbers of birds are found east of the Flint Hills,
but to the west the species is of restricted and local distribution.
Extreme outliers of the species are found no farther west than
stations in Jewell, Stafford, and Barber counties.

Breeding schedule.—Forty records of breeding span the period April
10 to July 20 (Fig. 8); the modal date for egg-laying is May 5.
Fifty-seven per cent of all eggs are laid in the period May 1 to 20.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is 5 eggs (5.2, 4-7; 26). Prior to May
11, clutch-size is 5.3 eggs (13 records), and after that date it is
5.1 eggs (13 records).

Nests are placed on the ground, with cover of grasses or forbs.

Western Meadowlark: Sturnella neglecta neglecta (Audubon).—This is
a common resident and summer resident in western Kansas, and is
restricted and local in the east; preferred habitat is in grassy
uplands.

Breeding schedule.—Twenty-three records of breeding span the period
April 10 to July 30 (Fig. 8); the modal date for egg-laying is May 5
for first nests and June 5 for second nests.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is 4 eggs (4.3, 3-6; 16).

Nests are placed on the ground with cover of grasses or forbs.

Yellow-headed Blackbird: Xanthocephalus xanthocephalus
(Bonaparte).—This uncommon and local summer resident occurs chiefly
in the west, in marshes. Nesting records are from Wallace, Meade,
Barton, Stafford, Doniphan, and Douglas counties. Temporal occurrence
is indicated in Table 18.

Breeding schedule.—Fifty-one records of breeding span the period
May 20[Pg 643] to June 30; the modal date of egg-laying is June 5. The sample
is probably not large enough to be wholly reliable.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is about 4 eggs.

Nests are placed within a few feet of water in cattail, rush, sedge,
and willow.

Red-winged Blackbird: Agelaius phoeniceus (Linnaeus).—This is a
common summer resident in marshes, wet pasture, and scrubby parkland
throughout the State. A. p. phoeniceus (Linnaeus) occurs in most of
Kansas and A. p. fortis (Ridgway) occurs in the west, east to about
Decatur County. A few birds can be found in eastern Kansas in winter;
the full breeding population is present between April and October.

Breeding schedule.—The 109 records of breeding in Cloud County span
the period May 1 to July 30 (Fig. 8); the modal date for laying is May
25, and 71 per cent of all eggs are laid in the period May 11 to June
10. Eighty-eight records of breeding from northwestern Kansas make a
histogram almost exactly duplicating the one from Cloud County.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size at Concordia, Cloud County, is 4 eggs
(3.7, 3-5; 48); in northeastern Kansas mean clutch-size is 3.7 eggs
(3-5; 46). For the total sample, mean clutch-size in May is 4.0 eggs,
in June, 3.7 eggs, and in July, 3.3 eggs.

Nests are placed about four feet high (one to nine feet) in willow,
cattail, sedge, grass, elm, exotic conifer, elderberry, coralberry,
buttonbrush, honeysuckle, smartweed, ash, osage orange, and yellow
clover.

In central Kansas red-wings are host to the Brown-headed Cowbird in a
frequency of one parasitized nest out of nine; in northeastern Kansas
the ratio is 1:25.

Orchard Oriole: Icterus spurius (Linnaeus).—This summer resident is
common in parkland, woodland, and old second-growth. Temporal
occurrence is indicated in Table 18.

Breeding schedule.—The 118 records of breeding span the period May
11 to August 10 (Fig. 8); the modal date for completion of clutches is
June 5, and 45 per cent of all eggs are laid in the first ten days of
June.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is 4 eggs (4.1, 3-6; 41). Clutches laid
at the peak of the season average 4.3 eggs (3-6; 26), and replacement
clutches average 3.8 eggs (3-4; 9).[Pg 644] Nests are hung about 15 feet high
(ranging from six to 55 feet) in elm, cottonwood, hackberry, locust,
catalpa, willow, alder, osage orange, walnut, pear, linden, and ash.

Baltimore Oriole: Icterus galbula (Linnaeus).—This common summer
resident is most numerous in the east, in woodland and riparian
timber. The species hybridizes freely with the Bullock Oriole in
western Kansas, and individuals morphologically typical of Baltimore
Orioles are rare west of the 100th meridian. Evidence of such
hybridization can be found in specimens taken in eastern Kansas, but
the linear nature of distribution along water-courses to the west
restricts gene-flow, and evident hybrids are not yet conspicuous.
Temporal occurrence is indicated in Table 18.

Breeding schedule.—Eighty-three records of breeding span the period
May 11 to July 10 (Fig. 8); the modal date of egg-laying is June 5,
and 66 per cent of all eggs are laid between May 21 and June 10.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is 4 eggs.

Nests are hung about 24 feet high (ranging from nine to 70 feet) in
elm, cottonwood, sycamore, maple, and oak.

Bullock Oriole: Icterus bullockii (Swainson).—This summer resident
is common in western Kansas in woodland and riparian situations. The
species hybridizes freely with the Baltimore Oriole, and most Bullock
Orioles in Kansas show evidence of such interbreeding. Almost all
records of breeding come from west of the 100th meridian, but the
species in recognizable form probably breeds locally at least as far
east as Stafford County.

Breeding schedule.—Few nesting records are available, but these
suggest that the breeding schedule of the Bullock Oriole resembles
those of the preceding two species in Kansas.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is about 4 eggs.

Nests are hung about 26 feet high (ranging from 10 to 50 feet) in
cottonwood, elm, and other large trees.

Common Grackle: Quiscalus quiscula versicolor Vieillot.—This summer
resident is common in parkland, and around towns and farms. Most
individuals move out of Kansas in winter, and the temporal occurrence
of these birds is indicated in Table 18.

Breeding schedule.—The 233 records of breeding span the period
April 11 to June 30 (Fig. 8); the modal date for egg-laying is May 5,
and two-thirds of all eggs are laid between May 1 and May 20.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is 5 eggs (4.5, 3-6; 33). Clutches laid
at the peak of the season average 4.7 eggs (3-6; 21), and those laid
as replacement clutches average 4.3 eggs (3-6; 12).

Nests are placed in forks and crotches about 22 feet high (ranging
from six to 50 feet) in elm, red cedar, cottonwood, oak, box elder,
and pine.

Brown-headed Cowbird: Molothrus ater ater (Boddaert).—Many
individuals of this common summer resident overwinter in the southern
part of the State and it is difficult to determine dates of arrival
and departure in Kansas. Conspicuous abundance in the north covers the
period April to October.

Breeding schedule.—The 141 instances of egg-laying span the period
April 21 to July 20 (Fig. 8); the modal date of laying is May 15, and
53 per cent of all eggs are laid in the period May 11 to June 10.
Inception of laying is[Pg 645] here fairly reliably indicated, but in
exceptionally early springs laying does occur earlier; a few eggs were
found on April 6, 1963, too late for incorporation into this report
other than in this sentence.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size in cowbirds is not readily determined.
On the basis of ovarian examination of five females taken in
mid-season, the birds here lay about five eggs at a time. There is no
question that the birds are "double-brooded" in Kansas, and the season
is sufficiently long for as many as five "clutches" to be laid by a
given female.

Eggs are laid in nests of some forty species of birds in Kansas; 39 of
these are passerines. No preference for any one species is detectable;
the most frequently parasitized species are simply the common species,
and these are the kinds for which nesting records are easily gathered
by man. In the following list of host species, the names marked with
an asterisk are the conspicuously parasitized species.

Mourning Dove, Eastern Kingbird, Eastern Phoebe,* Say Phoebe,* Acadian
Flycatcher, Barn Swallow, Horned Lark, Carolina Wren, Rock Wren, Brown
Thrasher,* Mockingbird, Catbird, Wood Thrush,* Eastern Bluebird,
Yellow-throated Vireo, Bell Vireo,* White-eyed Vireo,* Parula Warbler,
Yellow Warbler, Black-and-white Warbler, Kentucky Warbler, Louisiana
Waterthrush, Yellow-breasted Chat, Yellowthroat, Eastern Meadowlark,
Western Meadowlark, Red-winged Blackbird,* Orchard Oriole,* Cardinal,*
Black-headed Grosbeak, Indigo Bunting,* Blue Grosbeak, Dickcissel,*
Pine Siskin,* Rufous-sided Towhee,* Grasshopper Sparrow, Lark
Sparrow,* Chipping Sparrow, Field Sparrow.*

Scarlet Tanager: Piranga olivacea (Gmelin).—This rare summer
resident in northeastern Kansas occurs in deciduous forest and
bottomland timber. Specimens taken in the breeding season and records
of nesting come from Clay, Doniphan, Douglas, Wyandotte, Johnson, and
Linn counties, but the species probably occupies the entire eastern
third of the State. Dates of arrival in spring are from April 29 to
May 25 (the median is May 11), and dates of departure in autumn are
from August 4 to September 23 (the median is August 10).

Breeding schedule.—Six records of breeding fall in the period May
11 to June 20.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is about 4 eggs.

Nests are placed 20 to 35 feet high in elm, linden, hickory, and
walnut.

Summer Tanager: Piranga rubra rubra (Linnaeus).—This uncommon
summer resident in eastern Kansas occurs in woodland. Specimens taken
in the breeding season and records of nesting come from east of
stations in Doniphan, Shawnee, and Montgomery counties. Dates of
arrival in spring run from April 24 to May 18 (the median is April
29), and the species departs southward in September and October.

Breeding schedule.—Eleven records of egg-laying cover the period
May 21 to July 20; the modal date for laying is June 5.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is about 4 eggs.

Nests are situated ten to 20 feet high on horizontal limbs of large
trees.

Cardinal: Richmondena cardinalis cardinalis (Linnaeus).—This
species is a common resident in eastern Kansas, west to about the 99th
meridian; west[Pg 646] of this line the species becomes local and uncommon to
rare. Habitat in the east is found in woodland, edge, second-growth
and open riparian timber, and in the west the species is restricted to
riparian growths, chiefly along the Republican, Solomon, Smoky Hill,
Arkansas, and Cimarron rivers, and their larger tributaries.

Breeding schedule.—The 117 records of breeding span the period
April 1 to September 20 (Fig. 8); the modal date for laying of first
clutches is May 1, subsequent to which breeding activity is regular
but asynchronous.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is 3 eggs (3.5, 3-6; 65). Seasonal
variation in clutch-size is as follows:

Nests are placed about five feet high (ranging from 10 inches to 40
feet) in osage orange, elm, grape, rose, red cedar, coralberry,
willow, cottonwood, gooseberry, oak, elderberry, box elder, arbor
vitae, Lombardy poplar, Forsythia, pines, honeysuckle, wisteria,
lilac, red haw, hickory, dogwood, and sycamore.

Rose-breasted Grosbeak: Pheucticus ludovicianus (Linnaeus).—This is
a local and at times common summer resident in eastern Kansas, in
woodland, edge, and riparian timber. Specimens taken in the breeding
season and actual records of breeding come from Clay, Riley, Doniphan,
Leavenworth, and Douglas counties. This species meets and hybridizes
with the Black-headed Grosbeak west of the Flint Hills. Temporal
occurrence in the State is indicated in Table 19.

Breeding schedule.—Eleven records of breeding span the period May
11 to July 10; the modal date for laying is probably June 5.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is 3 or 4 eggs.

Nests are placed in deciduous trees, in forks and crotches six to 30
feet high.

Black-headed Grosbeak: Pheucticus mehnocephalus melanocephalus
(Swainson).—This summer resident is common in western Kansas, chiefly
along streams. Individuals referable to this species by sight records
alone breed in fair numbers as far east as Cloud and Sedgwick
counties, but to the east of these stations numbers are reduced,
partly as a result of presumed competition with the Rose-breasted
Grosbeak. Hybrids between these two grosbeaks are regularly produced.
The easternmost record of breeding by this species is at St. Mary's,
Pottawatomie County, where a male was seen as probably mated with a
female Rose-breasted Grosbeak. Temporal occurrence is indicated in
Table 19.

Breeding schedule.—Sixteen records of breeding span the period May
11 to July 10; the modal date for egg-laying is June 5.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is about 4 eggs (3.7, 3-4; 4). Nests
are placed about 12 feet high in a variety of deciduous trees.

Blue Grosbeak: Guiraca caerulea (Linnaeus).—This is a common to
uncommon summer resident in most of Kansas, in brushland and
streamside thickets. G. c. caerulea (Linnaeus) breeds in the east,
east of stations in Douglas, Greenwood, and Cowley counties, and G.
c. interfusa Dwight and
[Pg 647]
Griscom breeds in the west, west of stations
in Cloud, Stafford, and Clark counties; a broad zone of intergradation
exists between the two named populations. Temporal occurrence is
indicated in Table 19.

Breeding schedule.—Seven records of breeding span the period May 21
to June 30; the modal date of laying seems to be in late May or early
June.

Number of eggs.—Clutch-size is about 4 eggs.

Nests are placed from three to 30 feet high in a variety of deciduous
plants.